Western Civilization HIS 102

1. Western CivilizationHIS 102 Europe on the Threshold of Modernity, 1715-1789

2. There were several revolutions that took place during this time period, and not all involved violence and bloodshed • The first was a revolution in thought – in politics, economics, social justice, and religion • It was the notion that human beings, using rational thinking, could understand nature and be able to transform society

3. These ideas appealed to the public and also to some rulers • This revolution in thought was called The Enlightenment and it was responsible for sparking other revolutions: economic, social, and political (American and French Revolutions) • The Enlightenment took hold in the 18th century The Enlightenment

4. It was the result of Renaissance questioning, discoveries of the Scientific Revolution, and changes to agriculture • It began in France • Francois-Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire, inaugurated the European Enlightenment when he published his Philosophical Letters Concerning the English Nation The Enlightenment

5. Voltaire

6. This time was also called the Age of Reason • The Enlightenment began at the end of the17th century by those who wished to spread the ideas from the Scientific Revolution • These ideas gained popularity in the 18th century • Attempts were made to apply the scientific method to human behavior and social institutions – to look at it more objectively Age of Reason/ Enlightenment

7. The intellectuals tried to apply this scientific reasoning to ethics, politics, economics, and to society in general • The thinkers of the Enlightenment were for reform, change, and progress • The movement was centered in Western Europe • Southern and Eastern Europe were relatively un affected

8. It was initially limited to the elite of the urban aristocracy and the middle class • The ideas of the Enlightenment came to dominate “civilized” thinking for the next 2 centuries

9. Intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known as Philosophes or thinkers • They asked questions that required reasoning like “How do we discover truth?” • The intellectuals were not usually formally trained • They were more literary than scientifically trained The Philosophes

10. Often they discussed, applied, and popularized the ideas of others rather than coming up with new ideas • There were many who did write plays, histories, satires, novels, encyclopedia entries, or pamphlets • Most attended discussion groups called salons • The most famous was the salon of Madame Geoffrin

11. Salon of Madame Geoffrin

12. Madame Geoffrin

13. The philosophes came up with the philosophy of the Enlightenment and popularized it in Western Europe and in the American colonies • Voltaire was one of the leading philosophes • Spent 2 years living in Britain after being released from a French jail for his ideas • Wrote and spoke of the superiority of the British and their system of government

14. Voltaire said the British: • practiced religious toleration • were not directly under the thumb of the clergy • valued their people for what they did, not for who they were by birth • government controlled and limited the power of the King • highly respected scientists, poets, and philosophers Voltaire also attacked the French clergy, nobility, and monarch

15. Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters went through 5 editions the very first year • It went through 10 editions in 10 years • It was officially banned and burned which helped its popularity • And it started the Enlightenment • There were other important philosophes

16. Adam Smith (1723-1790) • Scottish economist • Wrote The Wealth of Nations • Advocated a laissez-faire economy that meant no government intervention, leave it alone Other Enlightenment Figures

17. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) • Italian • Legal reformer • Said laws are to promote happiness in society • Laws must be equitable for criminal and victim • Punishment should act as a deterrent to crime, not revenge • Advocated the end to torture to gain confessions, the end of capital punishment, and wanted rehabilitation of prisoners

18. CesareBeccaria

19. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) • German • Philosopher • Said, “Have the courage to use your own intelligence.” • In other words, Question

20. David Hume ( 1711-1776) • Scottish • Had a love of moral philosophy • Wrote Treatise of Human Nature in 1739 and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding in 1748, his greatest work • Said neither matter nor mind could be proven to exist with any certainty; only perceptions existed • Said if human understanding was based on perception rather than reason, then there could be no certainty in the universe

21. Hume also attacked established religions saying, “If things aren’t certain, then the Christian religion can have no basis.” • Religion grows out of hope and fear • Hume was the most penetrating of all Enlightenment thinkers • He was the greatest of all British philosophers

22. David Hume

23. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • French • One of the most original thinkers of his day • Crusaded for a return to nature – the pure, the beautiful, the simple • Became popular with many who were tired of the strict rules of etiquette and corrupt bureaucracies • Queen of France liked his ideas

24. Some subjects he dealt with were: • free love and uninhibited emotion • natural rearing and education of children • let children do what they like and teach them practical knowledge

25. Politically, Rousseau is seen as the father of the theory of modern democracy • Said people are all equal • He said to restore lost freedoms, people join in an agreement – surrendering their individual liberty for the good of the whole • He assumed the individual would be free by being part of the general will

26. Rousseau broke with the philosophes in 1750s because he felt people should stay closer to nature and placed more faith in emotion, feeling, and intuition than in reason • Baron de Montesquieu, also called Charles-Louis de Secondat • Wrote Persian Letters in 1721 satirizing Parisian morals showing the absurdity of French customs

27. Baron de Montesquieu

28. Analyzed political systems • Admired the English government and its Glorious Revolution • Said England was the only state in Europe where liberty could be found • Wrote how liberty could be achieved and despotism avoided

29. For Montesquieu, a successful government is one in which the powers are separated and have checks and balances • He advocated law codes be reformed to mainly regulate crimes against persons and property • He said the punishment should fit the crime • He was for the abolition of torture

30. John Locke (1632-1704) • Died in 1704, but his ideas had a great impact on the Enlightenment • Said the mind was blank at birth • Said governments have a powerful tool to mold and shape its citizens • Said 2 things shape humans: • Experiences: what they get through their senses • School and institutions: teach ideas to citizens

31. Locke described good and evil as pleasure and pain: we do what is pleasurable and try to avoid pain • He felt the natural rights of human beings are life, liberty, and property • To safeguard rights, people gave some of their sovereignty to governments • These governments were limited in power • No government could violate an individual’s rights

32. If it does, the people have the right to overthrow it • This thinking greatly influenced the American and French Revolutions • These ideas are reflected in the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson who had spent time in Paris during the Enlightenment and in the American Constitution

33. John Locke

34. The Encyclopedia was a 17-volume compendium of knowledge, criticism, and philosophy from the Enlightenment • Edited by Denis Diderot • A collaborative effort of philosophes • Summary of their thoughts and philosophy • It expressed the critical, rational, and empirical views • It showed the practicality of science and importance of knowledge in general Encyclopedia

35. Main Message: Almost anything could be discovered, understood, or clarified through reason • It was a threat to the status quo • It was censored and its publication halted • The first volume was a big hit and sold a lot of copies

36. Philosophes attacked: • war and military values • traditional aristocracies • social distinctions Philosophes wanted freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and science applied to economics

37. By the end of the 1770s, philosophes were quarreling amongst themselves • Their debates were about how far Enlightenment concepts could be taken • Some philosophes began to specialize and laid the foundations for our present-day social sciences: criminology, penology, & economics, for example

38. Paris was the heart of the Enlightenment • Gatherings were held in salons like that of Madame Geoffrin • They were attended by wealthy Parisians, aristocratic women, and those who wished to debate the new ideas • The women who attended wrote to their friends in France or other countries about what they heard The Social Context

39. These women played an important role in the spread of these ideas • For example, Madame Geoffrin corresponded with Catherine the Great of Russia • During the Enlightenment, there was an increase in literacy rates and access to books • This led to a more informed public

40. Reading rooms cropped up: for a small fee, one could enter and read the latest news or novels • In France they were called salle de lecture • These reading rooms were the forerunner to lending libraries • Ideas from the Enlightenment enticed others to read, and this interest led to other areas of study: art, music

41. Theatres opened to the public • Once a year there was an exhibition of art in one section of the Louvre Palace • Art auctions began as did the art critic -- a new role for some to fulfill • Some art remained religious • Other art explored emotions (Baroque style or the cult of sensibility) • Emotion was also looked at in literature Art, Literature, Theatre

42. Novels explored social problems and human relationships • Example: Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe • Published in 1717 Novels

43. There was a revival in classical architecture • This was especially true in the United States at the end of the 18th century • Why? • There was a classical movement in music, as well – emotional music • Franz Josef Haydn • Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart • Wrote symphonies and sonatas Music and Architecture

44. Haydn and Mozart

45. Those of the Enlightenment hoped for education and social reform that would lead to change and progress • Some rulers were affected by the Enlightenment, to varying degrees • Wanted to govern more effectively • Tried to reform laws, the economy, and government Many were beginning to see themselves as servants of their states. That was a big change for traditional elites European States in the Age of Enlightenment

46. Autocratic • Educated elites • For scientific research • Cultured court life • Intellectual curiosity • International language • Very Catholic with papal influence • Problems facing France in 18th century were a huge debt from foreign wars and the strength of the privileged elite France

47. Parlements (courts) could object to royal policy • Public opinion wished to remove privilege • Louis XV, grandson of Louis XIV, took the throne in 1715 at the age of 5 • essentially lazy • debt made him dissolve the parlement and create his own courts • died in 1774 • his grandson, 20-year old Louis XVI, took over France

48. Louis XV and Louis XVI

49. Louis XVI restored the parlement and called the Estates General in 1788 because of money problems • The Estates General had last been called in 1614 • There was mistrust of the Crown • There was no significant change in France until the outbreak of revolution France

50. After William ( d. 1702) and Mary died (d. 1694) , Mary’s sister Anne took the throne of England (r. 1702-1714) • The crown then passed to relatives in Hanover, Germany because Anne’s children did not outlive her • George I of Hanover took the throne (1714-1727) • George II followed (r. 1727-1760) • George III (r. 1760-1820) England