Political Order in the 18 th Century

1. Political Order in the 18th Century Of States, Enlightened Despots and Armies

2. Europe in 18th Century • 1715 – 1789 : the final phase of the European old order • 1715 : end of reign of Louis XIV • 1789 : start of French Revolution • Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment = new intellectual order based on rationalism and secularism • Political, social, economic and demographic trends ushered a modern new order in Europe

3. Enlightened Absolutism? • Can a ruler with absolute powers be enlightened? • Idea of natural rights • Equality before the law • Freedom of religious worship • Freedom of speech and press • Right to assemble and hold property • How should these natural rights be established and preserved? • Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws : separation of powers • Rousseau, The Social Contract : democracy and general will • Idea of “enlightened ruler” who would • Allow religious toleration, freedom of speech, right to private property • Foster the arts, sciences and education • Obey the laws instead of ruling arbitrarily and enforcing them equally for all subjects • The “enlightened ruler” offered the best hope for social reforms • Frederick “The Great” II of Prussia • Catherine the Great of Russia • Joseph II of Austria-Hungary

4. A Survey of the European States • France of Louis XV • Duke of Orleans and Cardinal Fleury as regents • Expansion of commerce, trade and industry • 1743, direct rule by Louis XV • Madame de Pompadour • Rule ended with mounting public debt, loss of French territories (colonies), heavy taxes and a hungry population • Louis XVI (1774 – 1792) – indecisive, weak and ineffectual ruler and Marie Antoinette, queen

5. A Survey of the European States • Prussia of Frederick William I • Evolution of civil bureaucracy – the General Directory • Role of Junkers, the landed aristocracy in the military • Prussia under Frederick II the Great • One of the best educated and cultured monarchs • Well-versed in Enlightenment thought • Established a single code of law that abolished the use of torture except in cases of treason and murder • Granted limited freedom of speech and full religious toleration • BUT he was a conservative at heart • Expanded the Prussia army and led it into wars – the Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War which saw Prussian dominance over Silesia, a part of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire

6. A Survey of the European States • Hapsburg Austria-Hungary • Maria-Theresa (1740 – 1780) and reforms after loss of Silesia in the Austrian War of Succession • Reforms sought to strengthen position of the Hapsburg monarchy • She was staunchly Catholic and conservative • Joseph II and his far-reaching reform program • Abolished serfdom and gave peasants hereditary rights to their holdings • Abandoned economic restraints such as monopolies, trade barriers and guild restrictions • Instituted a new penal code that abolished death penalty and instituted equality before the law • Introduced complete religious toleration and restricted the Catholic Church • Effects of his reforms • Alienated nobility and Church, confused the peasantry • Alienated non-German nationalities with his attempt to impose German as working official language

7. A Survey of the European States • Russia of Catherine the Great (1762 – 1796) • German wife of Peter III, counted Diderot and Voltaire among her correspondents • Claimed wish to reform Russia but knew she could not alienate the nobility • 1767, called for election of an assembly to debate on new penal code • In her Instructions, she questioned institutions of serfdom, torture and capital punishment • Nothing came out of the negotiations • Land policies favored the aristocrats • Nobility became more involved in local government • 1785 Charter of Nobility • Repression of serfdom

8. Enlightened Absolutism Revisited • Enlightened absolutism = relationship between ideas of Enlightenment and practicalities of government • Of the three rulers, only Joseph II sought radical reforms based on Enlightenment ideals • Catherine and Frederick were more motivated by political necessities • Their reforms, even though subscribing to Enlightened thought, sought ultimately to strengthen the power of the state • The hands of the so-called “absolute” monarchs were also tied by the presence and vested interests of the nobility upon whom their power base rested

9. War and Diplomacy • System of “Balance of Power” • Five major powers – Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Prussia and Russia • War of Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748) • War involving all the major powers in Europe • Prussia gained territory of Austrian Silesia • The Seven Years War (1756 – 1763) • Britain and Prussia vs Austria, Russia and France • Fought both in Europe and in the colonies (North America) • Development of the European Army • Professional standing army became standard feature in Europe • Social hierarchies reflected in army hierarchies • Change in the conduct of war • Elaborate maneuvers instead of pitched battles