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Human Body Systems. Unit 1: Identity. Directional Terms. General, directional terms are grouped in pairs of opposites based on the standard position.
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Directional Terms General, directional terms are grouped in pairs of opposites based on the standard position. • Superior and inferior. Superior means above, inferior means below. The elbow is superior (above) to the hand. The foot is inferior (below) to the knee. • Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal). Anterior means toward the front (chest side) of the body, posterior means toward the back. • Medial and Lateral. Medial means toward the midline of the body, lateral means away from the midline. • Proximal and distal. Proximal means closest to the point of origin or trunk of the body, distal means farthest. Often used when describing arms and legs. If you were describing the shin bone, the proximal end would be the end close to the knee and the distal end would be the end close to the foot. • Superficial and deep. Superficial means toward the body surface, deep means farthest from the body surface.
Regional Terms • Lumbar: Lower spine • o Nasal: Nose • o Occipital: Back of head • o Olecranal: Behind the elbow joint • o Oral: Mouth • o Orbital: Eye • o Patellar: Knee • o Pelvic: Pelvis • o Popliteal: Back of knee • o Sacral: area of spine containing sacrum and coccyx • o Scapular: Shoulders • o Sternal: Breast Bone • o Tarsal: Ankle • o Thoracic: Chest/Upper back • o Umbilical: Belly button • o Vertebral : Back • o Abdominal: Abdomen • o Antecubital: Front of Elbow • o Axillary: Armpit • o Brachial: Arm • o Buccal: Cheek • o Calcaneal : Heal • o Carpal: Wrist • o Cephalic: Head • o Cervical: Neck • o Coxal: Hip • o Digital: Fingers • o Femoral: Thigh • o Gluteal: Buttocks • o Inguinal: Groin
Tissues Epithelial tissues • are widespread throughout the body • they form the covering of all body surfaces, • line body cavities and hollow organs • are the major tissue in glands • perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception
Connective tissues • bind structures together • form a framework • support for organs and the body as a whole • store fat • transport substances • protect against disease • help repair tissue damage
Muscle Tissue • composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts • highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels • the cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers • are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective tissue • Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.
Nervous tissue • found in the brain, spinal cord, and • nerves • responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities • stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning • cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses
Using Bone Features for Identity •Specialists called forensic anthropologists are trained to analyze the secrets locked in a bone’s shape and structure and can use this information to help solve crimes, trace human origins, or identify those who have gone missing. •Forensic anthropologists use a combination of quantitative and qualitative measures to predict traits from bone. •Anthropologists can help identify a deceased from his or her skeletal remains bearing characteristics of ancestry, sex, stature, age and trauma.
Using Bone Features for Identity •Sex: Pelvis, skull, femur, tibia, humerus •Race: Skull •Height: femur, tibia, humerus, •Age: pelvis, femur, tibia, humerus
DNA • Double helix • Carries genetic information • Sugar/phosphate backbone • Sugar: deoxyribose • Bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine • Base pairing: A with T and C with G
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction • Denaturation: At 94 C (201.2 F), the double-stranded DNA melts and opens into two pieces of single-stranded DNA. • Annealing: At medium temperatures, around 54 C (129.2 F), the primers pair up (anneal) with the single-stranded "template" (The template is the sequence of DNA to be copied.) On the small length of double-stranded DNA (the joined primer and template), the taq polymerase attaches and starts copying the template. • Extension: At 72 C (161.6 F), the taq polymerase works best, and DNA building blocks complementary to the template are coupled to the primer, making a double stranded DNA molecule.
Restriction enzymes • an enzyme that cuts DNA at specific recognition nucleotide sequences • Such enzymes, found in bacteria are thought to have evolved to provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses. • Your specific code determines the number of times this set of scissors will snip and the number and size of DNA pieces that will be left behind. • These pieces can then be separated and compared using the process of gel electrophoresis. • As these fragments move, their varying lengths propel them through the gel at different speeds. • Scientists can use these RFLPs, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms, a set of DNA puzzle pieces unique to only you, to create a pattern called a DNA fingerprint.
CNS and PNS • Central nervous system: composed of the brain and spinal cord. Your brain and spinal cord serve as the main "processing center" for the entire nervous system, and control all the workings of your body. • Peripheral nervous system: The portion of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord. Connects and sends messages to CNS.
Brain Regions • Occipital lobe: processes vision • Temporal lobe: processes language • Parietal lobe: processes touch (hands, fingers, face, lips) • Frontal lobe: specialized in planning and voluntary movement, paying attention, interpreting our emotions and social situations • Cerebral cortex: houses the four lobes of the brain; two hemispheres; most complex thinking: remembering an interpreting emotions • Limbic system :satisfying biological needs, reproduction, and emotion, memory • Hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, sex drive • Pituitary gland: cycles of consciousness thalamus processes all sensory information to cerebral cortex • Hippocampus: formation and storage of new memories • Amygdala : processes associations between unpleasant emotions and memory for those emotions • Basal ganglia: group of neurons working together to help plan and produce movement (Parkinson's) • Medulla : controls basic autonomic functions like circulation, breathing, digestion • Pons: relay station from hindbrain to cerebral cortex • Cerebellum: coordination of motor function • Brainstem : lowest part of brain; basics of life support, and neurons that control sensory/motor skills
Neurons • Sensory neuron: a neuron conducting impulses inwards to the brain or spinal cord • Association neuron: neurons found in the brain and spinal cord that conduct impulses between neurons • Motor neuron: a neuron that conveys impulses from the central nervous system to a muscle, gland, or other effector tissue
Action Potential Resting Potential
Return to Resting Potential Na+/K+ pump
Hormones • Any one of the many circulating chemical signals found in all multicellular organisms that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and coordinate the various parts of the organism by interacting with target cells. • Hormones are secreted by tissues in the body referred to as glands. • Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream while exocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts, or passageways, before they reach their target. • The endocrine system, works with the nervous system to regulate and control all the actions of the human machine.
Endocrine System • Endocrine System : The glands and parts of glands that produce endocrine secretions, help to integrate and control bodily metabolic activity, and include especially the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, islets of Langerhans, ovaries, and testes. • Endocrine Gland : A gland (as the thyroid or the pituitary) that produces an endocrine secretion -- called also ductless gland,gland of internal secretion. • Exocrine Gland : A gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct. • Glucagon : A protein hormone that is produced especially by the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and that promotes an increase in the sugar content of the blood by increasing the rate of breakdown of glycogen in the liver. • Insulin :A vertebrate hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver.
Endocrine System Cont. • Hypothalamus : The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors, which regulate the anterior pituitary. • Pituitary gland : An endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe, which stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe, which produces and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse body functions.
Hormone Imbalance and Feedback Loops • Negative feedback loop - The body senses an internal change and activates mechanisms that reverse, or negate, that change. • body temperature regulation • Positive feedback loop - a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that accelerate or increase that change • blood clotting
The Eye • Accommodation : The automatic adjustment of the eye for seeing at different distances affected chiefly by changes in the convexity of the crystalline lens. • Astigmatism : A defect of an optical system (as a lens) causing rays from a point to fail to meet in a focal point resulting in a blurred and imperfect image. • Blind spot: The small circular area in the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye that is devoid of rods and cones and is insensitive to light. • Cone : Any of the conical photosensitive receptor cells of the vertebrate retina that function in color vision. • Cornea: The transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and pupil and admits light to the interior. • Depth Perception : The ability to judge the distance of objects and the spatial relationship of objects at different distances. • Hyperopia: A condition in which visual images come to a focus behind the retina of the eye and vision is better for distant than for near objects -- called also farsightedness.
The Eye • Iris : The opaque muscular contractile diaphragm that is suspended in the aqueous humor in front of the lens of the eye, is perforated by the pupil and is continuous peripherally with the ciliary body, has a deeply pigmented posterior surface which excludes the entrance of light except through the pupil and a colored anterior surface which determines the color of the eyes. • Lens : A curved piece of glass or plastic used singly or combined in eyeglasses or an optical instrument (as a microscope) for forming an image by focusing rays of light. • Myopia : A condition in which the visual images come to a focus in front of the retina of the eye because of defects in the refractive media of the eye or of abnormal length of the eyeball resulting especially in defective vision of distant objects -- called also nearsightedness. • Optic nerve: Either of the pair of sensory nerves that comprise the second pair of cranial nerves, arise from the ventral part of the diencephalon, form an optic chiasma before passing to the eye and spreading over the anterior surface of the retina, and conduct visual stimuli to the brain. • Pupil: The opening in the iris, which admits light into the interior of the vertebrate eye; muscles in the iris regulate its size. • Refraction: The deflection from a straight path undergone by a light ray or a wave of energy in passing obliquely from one medium (as air) into another (as water or glass) in which its velocity is different. • Retina : The sensory membrane that lines most of the large posterior chamber of the vertebrate eye, is composed of several layers including one containing the rods and cones, and functions as the immediate instrument of vision by receiving the image formed by the lens and converting it into chemical and nervous signals which reach the brain by way of the optic nerve. • Rod :Any of the long rod-shaped photosensitive receptors in the retina responsive to faint light.
The Eye: Focusing Light • Light rays enter the eye through the cornea. • The iris works like a shutter in a camera. • After passing through the iris, the light rays pass thru the eye's natural crystalline lens. • Light rays pass through a dense, transparent gel-like substance, called the vitreous that fills the globe of the eyeball and helps the eye hold its spherical shape. • In a normal eye, the light rays come to a sharp focusing point on the retina. • The retina's functions much like the film in a camera. It is responsible for capturing all of the light rays, processing them into light impulses through millions of tiny nerve endings, then sending these light impulses through over a million nerve fibers to the optic nerve.
Digestive System • Digestion: allows your body to get the nutrients and energy it needs from the food you eat • Mouth: mechanical digestion, salivary amylase starts protein breakdown • Esophagus: peristalsis pushes food down tube • Stomach: holds food while being mixed with enzymes to help with digestion • Small intestine: most digestion occurs here, absorption of nutrients • Pancreas: secretes digestive enzymes • Liver: produces bile to help digest fat • Gall bladder: stores bile • Large intestine: responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient (water reabsorption)
Enzymes • Salivary amylase: starches and carbohydrates • Pepsin: proteins • Pancreatic amylase: starches and carbohydrates • Lipases: fats • Proteases: proteins
Enzymes • Catalysts • facilitates or helps a reaction to occur more readily by reducing the energy required for the reaction to occur • Lock and Key model • Induced Fit model • Substrate • Active Sites
Respiratory System • Alveoli :Terminal air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs. • Bronchi: Pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs. • Minute Volume: The volume of air breathed in one minute without conscious effort. Minute volume = Tidal Volume x (breaths/minute) • Residual Volume: The volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation. • Spirometer: An instrument for measuring the air entering and leaving the lungs. • Tidal Volume: The volume of air breathed in and out without conscious effort. • Vital Capacity: The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation.
Gas Exchange • Gas exchange is the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide (the respiratory gases) move in opposite directions across an organism's respiratory membranes, between the air or water of the external environment and the body fluids of the internal environment. • The net diffusion of a substance occurs because of a difference in its concentration, or gradient. • Within an animal's body, as oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide produced, the concentration gradient of the two gases provides the direction for their diffusion. • As air or water nears the respiratory membrane, the oxygen concentration on the outside of the membrane is higher than on the internal side so oxygen diffuses inward • The concentration gradient for carbon dioxide is in the opposite direction, and so net diffusion of carbon dioxide keeps it diffusing out of the body.
Urinary System • The role of the kidneys is to maintain homeostasis by controlling the chemical composition of the blood. The kidneys do this by: • Removing waste products from the blood • Leaving nutrients such as proteins and glucose in the blood • Maintaining the acid-base balance • Regulating water and electrolyte balance
Urinalysis • A test that determines the content of the urine. • Macroscopic Examination: Color and clarity • Chemical analysis: pH, specific gravity, protein content, glucose content, ketone content • Microscopic Examination: red blood cells, white blood cells, epithelial cells, crystals, bacteria
Joints • Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body • Adduction : Movement toward the midline off the body • Circumduction: A movement at a synovial joint in which the distal end of the bone moves in a circle while the proximal end remains relatively stable • Dorsiflexion : Bending the foot in the direction of the dorsum (upper surface) • Extension: An unbending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow) that increases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint • Flexion : A bending movement around a joint in a limb (as the knee or elbow) that decreases the angle between the bones of the limb at the joint • Plantar flexion: Bending the foot in the direction of the plantar surface (sole) • Range of Motion: The range through which a joint can be moved • Rotation : Moving a bone around its own axis, with no other movement
