a n i ntroduction to

1. an introduction to psychology & sociology oswayo valley high school

2. what man has done HISTORY how man governs how man makes a living POLITICAL SCIENCE ECONOMICS SOCIAL SCIENCES PSYCHOLOGY SOCIOLOGY how man thinks and acts as an individual ANTHROPOLOGY how man thinks as acts in a group what makes groups of men similar and dissimilar

3. additional hypothesis reject/revise hypothesis others replicate and test theories

4. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes (Rathus, 5) • Behavior: any action that other people can observe and measure (both social and biological • Cognitive Processes: mental activities, such as dreams, perceptions, thoughts, and memories • Psychological Construct: theories or concepts that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured directly (e.g. emotions)

5. Psychology differs from Psychiatry (a branch of medical that deals with mental, emotional, or behavioral problems). • Psychology has a number of different fields • Clinical psychologists help people with personal problems • Counselors work in schools or industrial firms advising and assisting people the problems of everyday life • Developmental psychologists study physical, emotional, cognitive and social changes that occur throughout life • Educational psychologists focus on course planning and methodology • social psychologists are concerned with people’s behavior in social situations

6. WHAT ARE THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY? Describe the behaviors to be studied and present what is known Explain why people behave the way they do Predict, as a result of accumulated knowledge, what people will do, think, or feel in various situations Influence behavior in helpful ways

7. WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY? • Ancient Greece. • Socrates suggested that man “know thyself” – a process of introspection by “looking within” to examine our own thoughts and feelings to act in a way consistent with what each believes is right Aristotle outlined the laws of associationism (a learned connection between two ideas or events)

8. During the Middle Ages emotions and behaviors were thought to be inspired by spiritual forces. The Age of Enlightenment re-introduced science to philosophical and scientific thought: rationalism emphasized reason over faith in direct contradiction with Middle Ages thought

9. Structuralism(Wilhelm Wundt) – the basic elements of consciousness are divided between objective sensations (sight and taste) and subjective feelings (emotional responses and mental images) Functionalism (William James) – study of mental processes (functions or purposes of consciousness) Inheritable Traits (Francis Galton) – heredity determines a person’s personality and behavior Gestalt : perception (consciousness) is more than the sum of its parts, it involves the “whole pattern”

10. WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY? Evolutionary: investigates how primal survival instincts can influence behavior Biological: focuses primarily on the activities of the nervous system, the brain, hormones, and genetics

11. Psychodynamic: emphasizes internal unconscious conflicts; the emphasis is on sexual and aggressive instincts that collide with cultural norms (socially acceptable behavior) Humanistic: emphasizes an individuals potential for growth and the role of perception in guiding mental processes and behaviors

12. Cognitive: focuses on the mechanisms through which people receive, store, and process information Behavioral: examines the learning process, focusing in particular on the influence of rewards and punishments Sociocultural: explores how behavior is shaped by history, society and culture

13. A Closer Look At APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists approach their various subjects with a number of presuppositions  The Nature of Man: an issue of philosophy  The Nature of the Question: an matter of purpose  The Nature of the Resources: a question of procedure

14. The Evolutionary Approach Assumption: Adaptive organisms survive and transmit their genes to future generations • Applications: • Applies Darwin’s ideas of Natural Selection (an evolutionary process in which individuals of a species that are best adapted to their environments are the ones most likely to survive; they then pass on their traits to their offspring) to Psychology

15. William James: “the father of psychology”; adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained because they are successful • David Buss: a core principle of Psychological adaptation involves an organism’s need to reproduce

16. The Biological Approach Assumption: biological/physiological processes influence behavior and mental processes • Applications: • Stanley Schachter: studied eating • behaviors by manipulating external cues • to determine effects on eating • Howard Gardner: studied brain damage • and neurological disorders; different • parts of the brain have different • functions; created theory of multiple • intelligences

17. Hans Eysenck: the importance • of genetics; intelligence is • inherited • William James: humans share common instincts • (e.g. curiosity, parental love, sympathy, etc.) which • are passed genetically from generation to • generation • Masters and Johnson: • studied human sexuality

18. The Psychodynamic / Psychoanalytic Approach Assumption: unconscious motives and conflicts influence behavior • Applications: • Sigmund Freud: free association (patient is instructed to say • anything that comes into his mind) relieves the operation o • the mental process by bringing the unconscious to the conscious

19. Carl Jung: unconscious consisted of two components—a personal • (or individual) one and a collective one: cultures had similar archetypes (cultural symbols that appear to be nearly universal and that are stored in collective unconscious • Erik Erikson: people go through certain psychological crises at • different phases of development, each crisis needs to be resolved before a person can progress to the next stage of development

20. The Humanist Approach Assumption: people make free and conscious choices based on their unique experiences; human behavior is primarily determined by one’s environment Applications: • Carl Rogers: human behavior is governed by ‘self-concept’—the • image a person has of himself • Abraham Maslow: people have a • “hierarchy of needs”, beginning with the basics (food, shelter), progressing to the “higher” (love, self-esteem, understanding), and culminating in self-actualization

21. The Cognitive Approach Assumption: perceptions and thoughts influence behavior; how people process information and images is part of our “mental programming” Applications: • Jean Piaget: people develop through different • stages, at different rates • Albert Bandura: social cognition theory (a form of • learning in which the person observes and imitates the behaviors of others); people approach a situation based on “expectancies” learned from previous experiences

22. Lawrence Kohlberg: explains moral development through a period of • stages The central idea of the cognitive approach is one of a logical progression—whether applied to personality, morality, or behavior

23. The Behavioral Approach Assumption: personal experience and reinforcement guide individual development; it is not what a person thinks, but what he does Applications: • John Watson: psychology must be • limited to overt, observable behavior; controlling a person’s environment would influence him in a certain direction

24. Ivan Pavlov: developed the idea of “psychic reflexes” whereby an action can bring about an unrelated action; classical conditioning • B.F. Skinner: behavior is strongly influenced by rewards and punishment

25. The Socio-cultural Approach Assumption: socio-cultural, biological, and psychological factors create individual differences Applications: • Solomon Asch: people tend to conform • to other people’s ides of truth even when they disagree with those truths • Stanley Milgram: people will change • their behavior at the request of— or even in the presence of— someone they perceive to be an authority figure

26. Which of these approaches serves Psychology best?

27. A Closer Look At RESEARCH Psychologists must choose research methodology that is not only scientifically sound but also suitable for the topic. Each type has advantages and disadvantages.

35. Problems and Solutions in Research • Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a situation in which a researcher’s expectations influence that person’s own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior. This can be minimized by: • Single-blind experiment: an experiment in which the • participants are unaware of which participants received the • treatment • Double-blind experiment: an experiment in which neither the • experimenter nor the participants know which participants • received the treatment

36. The Placebo Effect. A change in a participant’s illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than the actual treatment. The Milgram Experience. Researchers must follow ethical guidelines in experimentation experimenter subject “answerer” actor

37. Socrates http://www.kidspast.com/images/socrates.jpg Aristotle http://westernparadigm.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/aristotle.jpg?w=263&h=315 Wilhelm Wundt http://psych.wisc.edu/henriques/resources/Wilhelm_Wundt.gif William James http://psych.wisc.edu/henriques/resources/William_James.GIF Francis Galton http://www.reproductive-revolution.com/francis-galton.png Terapias Gestalt http://www.terapiasnaturales.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/gestalt.jpg Evolution http://daily.swarthmore.edu/static/uploads/by_date/2009/02/19/evolution.jpg Nervous System http://www.capitalcitychiro.net/images/stock/nervous%20system.gif Middle Ages Exorcism http://www.australianparanormalsociety.com/news/wp-content/uploads/am4.jpg Age of Enlightenment http://www.memo.fr/Media/MOD_LUM_000.jpg Brain (cartoon) http://www.st-augustines.worcs.sch.uk/images/Departments/psychology/psych_2.jpg Good v. Evil http://www.blacksunjournal.com/wp-content/images/1506l.jpg Group Hug http://graphics.tomrue.net/images/group-hug.jpg Lab rat http://www.101usesforajohnhoward.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/07/25labrat.gif Herd http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_1V7wnZxPqok/RoOCiW5wfoI/AAAAAAAAFPc/1MdGesWwUJM/s400/herd-of-sheep.jpg PHOTO CREDITS Introduction to Psychology

38. Darwin http://oreh.pef.uni-lj.si/~markor/Darwin/Charles_Darwin.jpg William James http://psych.wisc.edu/henriques/resources/William_James.GIF David Buss http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0204/020904bussdavid.jpg Stanley Schachter http://www.socialpsychology.org/images/socialfigures/schachter.gif Howard Gardner http://www.howardgardner.com/images/Howard%20Gardner%20Compressed.jpg Hans Eysenck http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hans.Eysenck.jpg/200px-Hans.Eysenck.jpg William James http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/questionofgod/images/voices/james_sidebar.jpg Masters and Johnson http://images.stltoday.com/stltoday/resources/sex625may3.jpg Sigmund Freud http://blog.syracuse.com/shelflife/2008/05/freud.jpg Carl Jung http://www.crystalinks.com/jung.jpg Erik Erikson http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic20826.files/Erikson2.jpg Carl rogers http://www.myers-online.de/myers/zeitleiste/images/vRogers.jpg Abraham Maslow http://quangkhoi.net/learningcenter/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/maslow1.jpg PHOTO CREDITS Introduction to Psychology

39. Jean Piaget http://lakeplacidcsd.net/lpcsweb/highschool/dev.web/piaget.jpg Albert Bandura http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2007/december5/gifs/graw_bandura.jpg Lawrence Kohlberg http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/images/kohlberg_lecture.gif John Watson http://www.nndb.com/people/078/000030985/john-b-watson-1-sized.jpg Ivan Pavlov http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov.jpg B.F. Skinner http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/wasserman/Glossary/skinner.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/wasserman/Glossary/homepage.html&usg=__kkqrz4g-NzKQbOC4D3GR1mJe5ZE=&h=316&w=319&sz=24&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=T29QO16IxvOGLM:&tbnh=117&tbnw=118&prev=/images%3Fq%3Db%2Bf%2Bskinner%26gbv%3D2%26ndsp%3D18%26hl%3Den Solomon Asch http://aschcenter.blogs.brynmawr.edu/files/2008/10/aschpipeforweb.jpg Stanley Milgram http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2003/Milgram_head.gif PHOTO CREDITS Introduction to Psychology

40. Belch, Hal. What is Psychology?: Psychology Approaches. Culver City, CA: Social Studies School Service. 2004 Kasschau, Richard A. Understanding Psychology. New York, NY: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. 2003 Rathus, Spencer A. Psychology: Principles in Practice. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2003 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Introduction to Psychology