Targeting high-risk groups of drivers

1. Targeting high-risk groups of drivers Adolescent drivers and elderly drivers

2. Drivers killed/injured pr. million km driven Bjørnskau, 2004

3. Proportion of drivers 65 year of age and older with a driver license – 1980-2002 (Norway)

4. Characteristics of accidents with older drivers • Overrrepresented in junction accidents, especially when turning left (in countries with right-side driving). • Higher accident risk in roundabouts • Overrepresented in wrong-way driving accidents • Elderly have problems reading signs on distance, especially at nighttime and under glare conditions • Signs often have too short sight distance to have enough time to perceive and react

5. Characteristics of older drivers – age related changes: • Visual and auditory functions impaired • Cognitive ability can be impaired – e.g. reduced perception, attention and information processing • Physical ability reduced (stiffer neck, torso, reduced muscle power) • More health problems and more use of medication • However – large in-group variation – an older driver is not necessary a bad driver

6. On the other hand, elderly drivers: • are usually very safety oriented (few violations) • have a defensive driving style • tend to compensate for their impairments by: • avoiding heavy traffic • driving at night-time/evening • avoiding driving on slippery roads and during difficult weather conditions • using passengers as “co-pilots” • Many elderly drivers may therefore be the safest drivers • Reason to believe that certain subgroups of elderly drivers accounts for the increase in risk

7. Subgroups with functional impairments -vision • Weak association between visual acuity (synsskarphet) and accident risk • Due to compensation? • Reduced visual acuity under glare conditions associated with a poor driving performance (indikasjon på grå stær/cataract) • Defects in the central field of view also associated with poor driving performance • Neither of these two tests are included in the medical test older drivers have to pass today Ulleberg og Sagberg, 2003

8. Reduced acuity under glare conditions

9. Defects in the central field of vision may impair perception Moderate defect Severe defect (extreme example)

10. Amsler grid – indication of defects in the central field of view • Focus on the dot in the middle • Breaks/waves in the grid indicate defects in the central field og vision

11. Attention and accident risk are related • UFOV (”useful field of view”) • Slow information processing • Impaired divided and selective attention • Low capacity of using information in the peripheral field of view. • Other cognitive impairments typical for dementia related to accident risk • Short time memory, spatial orientation, change of attention and being able to concentrate over time

12. Reduce mental workload and (consequenses) of driver error Reduce injury if an accident occurs The vehicle Selection/screening Reduce mental workload and driver errors Improve functional ability The road infrastructure The driver Reduce injury for drivers, pedestrians and cyclists Training Holistic approach to safety promotion for older drivers

13. Examples of road design for elderly drivers • The system is today primarily designed for the young and healthy driver • A road system designed for the older driver may improve safety for all drivers

14. Example – Avoidance of junction accidents Main idea: lowering information processing demands (less mental workload) • simplify junctions (e.g. from X- to T-crossing) • left-turn lane and own signal-light phases for left turns • road illumination at junctions and pedestrian crossings • increase size and conspicuity of signs and other information • Increase time from information is presented to the driver has to respond (more than 2.0 sec)

15. Example: wrong way driving on motorway

16. Hvam-junction Correct direction Planned direction Wrong way!

17. Several factors complicating the information processing at Hvam • Several roundabouts near each other • Information overload concerning signs • Contra-intuitive direction of on-ramp (more natural to believe that the wrong ramp is the correct one) • On-ramp placed in connection to roundabout • All these elements should be avoided

18. Typical driver error resulting in wrong way driving from service areas Gas station

19. Better solution? • Simplify the driver’s decision making Curve signal that this is an unnatural way to enter

20. Avoiding errors and reducing injury through special vehicle design for older drivers • Several types of equipment may reduce workload and help reduced motoric skills • Existing: Power steering, power brakes, automatic gearing • Soon to come: night-time vision, collision avoidance systems (but uncertain effect) • Several passive safety measures are today unsuited due to higher fragility among elderly drivers: airbags too powerful, seat belts may cause injury

21. More errors and slips/lapses? inexperienced, driving skills are not automatized low spare mental capacity when driving hazards not perceived adequately More violations? - ”Poorer” attitudes More preferences towards risk-taking? More social pressure towards risk-taking? Possible explanations for young drivers elevated accident risk The answer seems to be ”yes” to both explanations

22. The accident risk is reduced by 50 % during the first 9 months Sagberg, 2002

23. Same tendency for all age groups Violations? Experience, less errors? Maycock, 1991

24. What happens during the first nine months? • Routine behaviours get automatised(are performed without conscious attention) • Increased spare mental capacity for handling unexpected events • Consequences: Technical skills improve, fewer slips & lapses and errors • Hazard perception improves (faster & better) Sagberg og Bjørnskau, 2003

25. Also: Learning to interact better with other drivers – being more predictable for others • Interestingly: more violations (!), especially running yellow lights, more “offensive” driving like less hesitation at junctions etc.

26. The experience paradox • Most important experience must be gained during the most dangerous period of a driver’s development (i.e. first year holding a driver license) • How can this experience be gained in a safe way?

27. Driving with a lay instructor and accident risk after licensing Sagberg, 2002

28. However – even though the accident risk is reduced after nine months, it is still high compared to more experienced drivers • Due to risk-taking? Safety motivation needs to be addressed

29. Improved skills and lowered safety motivation High Low Summala, 1996

30. Not all young drivers are high-violators Ulleberg, 2002

31. Cluster 2 Cluster 5 Low anxiety High anxiety Egocentric High aggression Hostile Mild social deviance High sensation seeking Impulsivity Personality traits and driver behaviour Two ”problem groups” of young drivers Ulleberg, 2002

32. Response to a traffic safety campaign by cluster Ulleberg, 2002

33. Why are risk-takers so difficult to influence? Rejection - does not elaborate the message • Affect and hedonism – does not like the message, too much in conflict with own preferences – the processes of contrasting and rejection • No personal relevance - No.1 attitude: ”I have such good driving skills that I can take more chances than others” (meaning: the message does not apply to me) • Low preferences for elaborating messages in general (are they bit stupid…?) Reckless driving seems to be a very important part of their identity (and reflection of their personality). Difficult to change people’s lifestyle through an attitude campaign

34. Influencing adolescents through campaigns • Advantageous to let adolescents perceive that they themselves take decisions about attitude/behavioural change. Do not tell them directly how to think and behave! • Self-initiated decisions usually motivate for deeper elaboration of the message, which may facilitate attitude/behaviour change • Adolescents are more easily influenced by social and group pressure. Face-to-face communication most efficient. Especially from other adolescents • New campaigns tries to motivate adolescents to influence each other – e.g. passengers influencing the driver. E.g. “Sei I frå!” campaign • Targeting night-time weekend driving and group pressure may be especially relevant

35. Risk of injury by time and day Bjørnskau, 2004 Reducing exposure at night-time in weekends especially relevant

36. Increase in accident risk when young drivers carry young passengers Chen, 2000 Focus on positiv guidance from passengers, reduce group pressure especially relevant

37. Other possible measures • Restriction of night-time driving and carrying young passengers for young drivers (implemented in several countries) • Alternative modes of transport more easily available (e.g. cheap taxis during weekends) • More driving at motor sport lanes? Supposed catharsis-effect, but may have the opposite effect on safety due to compensation (increased belief in own driving skills)

38. Model illustrating factors influencing young drivers driving behaviour and accident involvement Decision making Motives Attitudes Driving behaviour: Slips and lapses Errors Violations Automatization of the driving process Driver education Training Expereince Actual driving skills Perceived driving skills Learning-process Perceived risk of accidents Personality Lifestyle Group norms Cognitive and motoric skills ”Backpack” Social influence and individual differences Modified model based on Gregersen og Berg, 1996