Barbara Bagilhole Professor of Equal Opportunities and Social Policy

1. ‘Understanding Equal Opportunities and Diversity: The Social Differentiations and Intersections of Inequality’ Barbara Bagilhole Professor of Equal Opportunities and Social Policy

2. Equal Opportunities & Diversity Later, more sophisticated coupling of concepts EO&D Emphasises: Recognition of difference Possibility of ‘multiple disadvantage’ Different treatment legitimate in pursuit of social equality, fairness & justice

3. ‘Multiple disadvantage’ moved from rather crude idea of ‘adding up’ disadvantages  sophisticated level of thinking that disadvantages are not cumulative but interactional – effect runs more than one way E.G. Black women – racism infected & changed by sexism - sexism they encounter infected & changed by racism

4. ‘NEW KIDS ON THE BLOCK’ ‘BIG THREE’ (gender, race & disability) ‘NEW SIX’ (sexual orientation, religion or belief & age)

5. European Union: Perceptions and Attitudes Perception of discrimination on the basis of Rare Widespread Ethnic origin 30% 64%Disability 42% 53% Sexual orientation 41% 50% Age 48% 46% Religion or belief 47% 44% Gender 53%40%

6. European Union: Perceptions and Attitudes Would you say belonging to certain groups is a disadvantage? Disadvantage Being disabled 79% Aged >50 77% Ethnic minority 69% Homosexual 62% Religious minority 39% Women 33% Men 4%

7. Caution in Millieux of Diversity: • Avoid some inequalities being left out • Rivalry or competition between different interests • Recognise stronger interests may rise above others

8. Past UK Formula for EO • Ill equipped to fully embrace social dynamics of race, gender, disability, class, age, sexual orientation & religion or belief • Legislation – piecemeal, confusing, reactive, no collective solutions/class actions, complex, costly, & time consuming • Incremental approach bewildering for employers & public, & dysfunctional for EO&D project • Legislation for different target groups not compatible

9. Extent and Nature of Heterogeneity of Disadvantage • 55m  58m (30 years) • 1.6m more over 65 years • 5.2m parent couples, 1.6m lone mothers, 180,000 lone fathers • 10m disabled people • 4.6m ethnic minorities • 3.1m non-Christian religion • 2.3-3.2m gay, lesbian or bisexual

10. Fundamental Continuous Disadvantage • Glass Ceiling/Gender Pay Gap – Hourly 17% (38.4% PT) Caveat – Ethnic origin • Education – girls achieve but discipline segregation • Sex & Power • Caring Responsibilities

12. Heterogeneity and Relational Aspect of Disadvantage • Age - mediating factor in gender and employment • Disability & Employment – lower than non-disabled but also gendered • Ethnic Groups & Employment – EM women full time – EM men part time – Unemployment - Heterogeneity of different EM groups • Religious Belief – Muslims lowest employment – all religious groups employment activity gendered

13. Social Justice Agenda

14. Relatively Recent Major Challenges Theoretical & Political Challenges: • Post-structuarlist/modernist stances • Critique homogeneity of groups or even groups as such  Deconstruction of groups • Concept of diversity ‘New kids on the block’ • Disadvantage dynamic & interactive E.G. No longer acceptable to act as if women existed separate from other sources of disadvantage

15. Multi-discrimination ‘Double’, ‘Triple’ … disadvantage? Potentially list is endless, but simply counting & adding on different types of disadvantage does nothing to facilitate our understanding of simultaneous, interlacing & interactional disadvantage

16. Fairytale Analogy Three minority ethnic women assume the role of Snow White, rather than the Black Queen Each in turn responds to question: ‘Mirror, mirror on the wall, what is the greatest oppressor of us all?’ • First woman: ‘being black, racism is the main cause of my oppression’ • Second: ‘my life is dominated and controlled by men. Therefore, sexism is my greatest oppressor’ • Third: ‘it is not possible to respond because my gender, race and class are all causes of my oppression’

17. EO&D at Theoretical Impasse? Post-structuralist/modernist critiques challenge validity of ‘truth discourses’ and ‘grand narrative’ Useful for EO&D Fundamentally difficult if they only deconstruct groups, but do not reconstruct them in some way

18. Intersectionality to the Rescue? Concept and methodology of ‘intersectionality’ Crenshaw (1989) Acknowledges & stresses importance of intersections of disadvantage between & within social groups. ‘Intersectionality refers to particular forms of intersecting oppressions … Intersectional paradigms remind us that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions work together in producing injustice’ Hill Collins (2000: 180)

19. Intersectionality to the Rescue? Focuses on the inter-relationships between different social divisions – as either reinforcing or counteracting each other Reconstruction of different socially disadvantaged groups

20. Need to fine tune policy • Acknowledges that where disadvantages interplay & coincide or conflict between & within groups new policy approaches need to be considered

21. Need to fine tune policy • Need for analysis that looks at whole people rather than breaking them up into component parts (e.g, race separate from gender) • Individuals possess identities that encompass multiple, intersecting oppressions that are complex and shifting • Intersectionally informed policies can address issues that may be only relevant for people at a certain period in their lives, e.g., policies for lesbian mothers with small children, or for young black men

22. Women’s different experiences of exclusion help us to understand - power relationships based not only on gender, but also on sexual orientation, age, disability, race, & religion or belief • Sex only one of many inequalities that construct gender; gender is constructed through & by distinctions of race, ethnicity, sexuality, disability, religion or belief, age

23. INTERSECTIONALITY TO THE POLICY MAKERS RESCUE? • EU policies on diversity and feminist theories of intersectionality point in same direction • Democratic process that ‘can on the one hand look for commonalities without being arrogantly universalist, and on the other affirm difference without being transfixed by it’. (Yuval-Davis)

24. ‘REALPOLITIK’ • Concept of intersectionality illuminates multiple, intersecting, interlacing nature of complex social relations both between & within socially disadvantaged groups • Useful for development of EO&D policy but complexity must in some way be contained to allow its utility for reality & practicality of EO&D policy making

25. Containing Complexity? Function in the context of the ‘Realpolitik’

26. TAMING COMPLEXITY : 2 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES • ‘Intercategorical’– across categories, quantitative evidence • ‘Intracategorical’ – inside category, qualitative evidence (McCall, 2005) • Recognition of multiple & intersecting disadvantage • Strategic reconstruction of recognition of group social disadvantage that policies can be based on

27. ‘Intercategorical’ approach • Strategically using existing social groups, as imperfect & ever changing as they are • E.G. effect of race on income, measure how differs for men/women, for women of higher/ lower class, and men of higher/lower class? (McCall, 2005) • Comparative approach lends itself to quantitative methodology

28. ‘Intracategorical’ approach • Intensive, qualitative in-depth case study of Asian women revealed complex nature of daily lived experiences of previously invisible group (Brah 1992) • Intersectionality accepts traditional categories albeit critically & uses them to identify & study finer points of intersections

29. Domestic Violence

30. A Policy Example Quantitative analysis by race, ethnicity, class, disability, sexual orientation, religious belief, & age Further qualitative analysis of particular groups to analyse particular issues Produce specialised positive action measures

31. Northern Ireland Single Commission – A Model to follow? • History of Radical Intervention – Religious Belief Proactive Fair Employment Agency • Investigations of organisations (NI Civil Service) • Compulsory Monitoring • Affirmative Action (short of quotas) • Employment Targets & Timetables

32. Mainstreaming Equality • Statutory Policy Appraisal – Religion & political opinion, gender, race & ethnicity, disability, age, sexual orientation, marital status & those with dependants • All new policies & service changes assessed impact on 9 equality groups – adverse impact ameliorated where possible or justified • Monitoring • Consultation

33. Complexity of Diversity Mainstreaming • Definition & Scale of Adverse Impact? • Statistical Evidence v Qualitative data (Sexual Orientation) • Reconciliation of Conflicting Adverse Impacts

34. Conclusion • NI model - a way forward - exemplary e.g. of EO&D mainstreaming with potential for duplication in other countries? • Most useful if issue of complexity of diversity, & even problem of conflicts of interest across & within disadvantaged groups approached from an intersectional perspective

35. Conclusion • Intersectional approaches identified as ‘intercategorical’ & ‘intracategorical’ - fruitful way forward for development of EO&D policy based on research evidence • Intersectionality alerts us to need to fine tune policy in more sophisticated manner than in past

36. ‘Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere’ (Martin Luther King). • Reminds us that all oppressions are interrelated & mutually constitutive • Debates in UK around: • Multiculturalism versus women’s rights - Genital Mutilation Act, forced marriages & ‘honour killings’. • Rights of women to abortion, legalised assisted death & disabled people’s movement • Certain religious beliefs & civil partnerships & gay adoption

37. History of EO in UK 60 years – my lifetime

38. EO&D Legislation 1940s & 1950s (Two Acts) • DISABLED PERSONS (EMPLOYMENT) ACTS (DPEA) 1944 & 1958 • BRITISH NATIONALITY ACT 1948 1960s &1970s (14 Acts) • COMMONWEALTH IMMIGRATION ACT 1962 • RACE RELATIONS ACT 1965 • LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT 1966 • SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT 1967 • RACE RELATIONS ACT 1968 • COMMONWEALTH IMMIGRATION ACT 1968 • CHRONICALLY SICK AND DISABLED PERSONS ACT 1970 • EQUAL PAY ACT 1970 • CHRONICALLY SICK AND DISABLED PERSONS ACT 1970 • IMMIGRATION ACT 1971 • MATRIMONIAL CLAUSES ACT 1973 • EMPLOYMENT PROTECTION ACT 1975 • SEX DISCRIMINATION ACT 1975 • RACE RELATIONS ACT 1976

39. Equal Opportunities Legislation 1980s & 1990s under Conservative governments (11 Acts) • BRITISH NATIONALITY ACT 1981 • EQUAL PAY ACT (amended) 1983 • COMPANIES ACT 1985 • SEX DISCRIMINATION ACT (amended) 1986 • PUBLIC ORDER ACT 1986 • LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT 1988 • FAIR EMPLOYMENT PROTECTION ACT, NORTHERN IRELAND 1989 • SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT (amended) 1994 • DISABILITY DISCRIMINATION ACT 1995 • ASYLUM AND IMMIGRATION ACT 1996 • EMPLOYMENT RIGHTS ACT 1996

40. Equal Opportunities Legislation 1990s & 2000s under New Labour governments (27 Acts) • HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1998 • BELFAST AGREEMENT 1998 • SCOTLAND ACT 1998 • GOVERNMENT OF WALES ACT 1998 • CRIME AND DISORDER ACT 1998 • IMMIGRATION AND ASYLUM ACT 1999 • SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT (amended) 2000 • LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT 2000 • RACE RELATIONS AMENDMENT ACT 2000 • SEX DISCRIMINATION ACT (amended) 2001 • NATIONALITY, IMIGRATION AND ASYLUM ACT 2002 • EMPLOYMENT ACT 2002 • ADOPTION AND CHILDREN ACT 2002 • EMPLOYMENT (SEXUAL ORIENTATION) REGULATIONS 2003 • EMPLOYMENT (RELIGION AND BELIEF) REGULATIONS 2003 • SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT 2003 • CRIMINAL JUSTICE ACT 2003 • ASYLUM AND IMMIGRATION ACT 2004 • CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT 2004 • DISABILITY EQUALITY DUTY 2005 • EQUALITY ACT 2006 • EMPLOYMENT (AGE) REGULATIONS 2006 • RACIAL AND RELIGIOUS HATRED ACT 2006 • WORK AND FAMILIES ACT 2006 • GOVERNMENT OF WALES ACT 2006 • GENDER EQUALITY DUTY 2007 • EQUALITY ACT 2010

41. Fantasy Women %Men % Judges946 Senior Police Officers 937 Skilled Trades 928 Newspaper Editors 918 MPs 8218 Professors 8119

42. Fantasy Continued Women %Men % Nurses 1189 Primary & Nursery teachers 14 86 Personal Service Jobs 16 84 Secretaries 2080

43. Modern Apprentices Women % Men % Early Years Care 2 98 Construction 991 Plumbing 99 1 Engineering 973