Psychology of the Self

1. Psychology of the Self

2. Historical Background William James (1890) The material self: body, clothes, wife and children, home The social self: recognition which a man gets from others The spiritual self: a man's inner or subjective being, his psychic faculties or dispositions

3. What is the Self? Self-concept: The set of beliefs we hold about who we are Self-esteem: The evaluation we make of ourselves High vs. low self-esteem Global vs. domain specific self-esteem Explicit vs. implicit self-esteem

4. What is the Self? (cont�d) People w/ high self-esteem think well of themselves, set appropriate goals, use feedback in a self-enhancing manner cope successfully w/ difficult situations remember their daily experiences more favorably People w/ low self-esteem think poorly of themselves, select unrealistic goals, or shy away from goals, experience negative emotions in case of (-) feedback Are more vulnerable to depression when they encounter stress Remember their past more negatively

5. What is the Self? (cont�d) Measuring self-esteem Explicit self-esteem: Questionnaires (e.g. Rosenberg (1965), �I feel that I have a number of good qualities) Implicit self-esteem: E.g., Implicit Association Tests

6. Development of the Self Visual self-concept develops bw 15 & 24 months During early childhood, children categorize themselves on concrete dimensions Around age 8, children begin to define themselves on psychological attributes Adolescence: Identity formation

7. Sources of Self-Knowledge Socialization Reflected Appraisal: self-evaluation based on the perceptions & evaluations of others Feedback from others Self-perception Labeling arousal states Environmental distinctiveness Social comparison Social identity: self concept derived from group-membership

8. Culture and the Self Independent self: the sense of oneself as bounded, unitary, & separate from the social context Interdependent self: the sense of self as flexible, variable, & connected to the social context

10. A New Approach: Balanced Integration Differentiation Model (BID) Imamoglu (2003) Are independence (individualism, individuation) and interdependence (collectivism, relatedness) opposite? Intrapersonal differentiation orientation: a basic psychological need to actualize one�s unique potentials Interpersonal integration orientation: a basic psychological need to be connected to others

11. A New Approach: BID (cont�d)

12. A New Approach: BID (cont�d) Related individuated people reported Higher self-satisfaction Higher family satisfaction Higher perceived parental acceptance Lower perceived parental control Higher need for cognition

13. Aspects of Self-Knowledge Self schemas: How one thinks about one�s personal qualities in a particular life domain People are schematic on dimension that are important to them Schemas help identify situations that are relevant and guide one�s behavior They help remember schema-relevant info Not always positive!

14. Aspects of Self-Knowledge (cont�d) Possible selves: schemas that people hold what they may or could become in the future They help people to articulate goals and develop goal-directed behaviors They may be positive or negative!

15. Aspects of Self-Knowledge (cont�d) Self-discrepancies: discrepancies bw how we perceive ourselves & how we would ideally like to be or believe others think we should be Ideal self: the personal attributes one would like to have Ought self: the personal attributes one believes one should possess Actual-ideal discrepancy -> dejection-related emotions (e.g., disappointment, dissatisfaction, or sadness) Actual-ought discrepancy -> agitation-related emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety)

16. Self-Regulation The ways people control and direct their own actions Working self-concept: the aspect of the self-concept that is salient in a particular situation Threats to working self-concept may decrease self-esteem but stable self usually wins out If working self-concept is stable over time, it may become part of the stable self

17. Self-Regulation (cont�d) Self-complexity: The number of dimensions that people use to think about themselves Low self-complexity may lead to negative emotions in case of failure Self-complexity may act as a buffer against stressful life events

18. Self-Regulation (cont�d) Self-efficacy: Specific expectation about our abilities to accomplish certain tasks Self-efficacy beliefs are highly specific Enable people to plan, cope w/ setbacks, & engage in goal-directed behavior

19. Self-Regulation (cont�d) Two independent motivational systems Behavioral activation system (BAS): an appetitive system, when activated people tend to approach people and activities in the environment Behavioral inhibition system (BIS): an aversive system, when activated people are more likely to avoid others and activities BAS, ideal self, promotion focus BIS, ought self, prevention focus

20. Self-Awareness Self-awareness: experiencing oneself as an object of one�s own attention Cybernetic Theory of Self-Regulation: People compare their behavior to a standard, decide that it matches the standard or does not, & continue adjusting their behavior until a match is made or the goal is abandoned

21. Motivation and The Self Need for an accurate self-concept Need for a consistent self-concept Self-verification: seeking out & interpreting situations that confirms one�s self-concept We selectively interact w/ others who see us as we see ourselves We like people who see us positively on the attributes that we are confident to hold

22. Motivation and The Self (cont�d) Self-improvement Remember possible selves? Comparing one�s self with others Self-enhancement: the need to hold a positive view of oneself Positive illusions: mild, falsely positive self-enhancing perceptions of one�s personal qualities People see themselves more positively They have more control over the events They are unrealistically optimistic about the future

23. Motivation and The Self (cont�d) Self-Affirmation: People cope w/ specific threats to their self-worth by reaffirming unrelated aspects of themselves High self-esteem people are more likely to use this strategy It may eliminate the need for defensive strategies against threats

24. Motivation and The Self (cont�d) Terror Management Theory: The terror of mortality is kept under control by two factors: a cultural worldview and self-esteem People act in accordance with cultural norms when mortality is salient They aggress against others who challenge their worldviews Affiliate w/ close others High self-esteem is a buffer against death anxiety

25. Motivation and The Self (cont�d) Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory: Reacting to the success of others with pride or discontent & consequent efforts to restore a sense of self The comparison effect: the more important the domain, the better other�s performance and the closer the relationship, the greater is the threat to self-evaluation (envy, frustration, anger) The reflection effect: the less important the domain, the better other�s performance and the closer the relationship, the greater is the pride people derive from other�s success

26. Social Comparison Theory People are driven to evaluate themselves through comparisons w/ other people The goals of social comparison Accurate self-evaluation Self-enhancement Self-improvement Sense of communion Direction: upward vs. downward Consequences: positive vs. negative

27. Self-Presentation Deliberate efforts to act in ways that create a particular impression of the self Self-handicapping: engaging in actions that provide obstacles to success, so that failure can later be attributed to these obstacles Claimed vs. behavioral self-handicapping

28. Self-handicapping, Self-Concept Clarity, & Self-Esteem Study 1 Self-concept clarity & explicit self-esteem were negatively associated w/ claimed self-handicapping Study 2 Implicit self-esteem was positively associated w/ behavioral self-handicapping only when self-concept clarity was low

29. Self-handicapping, Self-Concept Clarity, & Self-Esteem (cont�d)