The Northern Colossus

1. The Northern Colossus U.S. – Latin American Relations In the 19th Century

2. Overall U.S. Goals • Protection and expansion of economic and strategic interests in region • Seek hegemony – manage hemispheric events according to U.S. interests • Political, economic, and strategic • Civilizing mission • Justify policies as helpful for “backward” & barbaric people • Develop virtuous democratic republics

3. Prelude to Empire • During early national period of U.S. – Euro threats reduced • Latin Am independence eliminated Spain as a threat to U.S. • France departs Haiti & Louisiana by 1803 • Britain seeking U.S. alliance in 1820s • Allowed U.S. to focus on economy rather than defense • U.S. expected Latin Am to grow dependant on economic relationship

4. Monroe Doctrine - 1823 • To prevent new Euro colonization that might cut off U.S. access to L.A. markets • “We should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety.” – J. Monroe • U.S. would not interfere with existing colonies nor meddle in European affairs • M.D. violated many times during 19th century • GB & FR bombarded & blockaded ports to force payments of debts • U.S. intervened in Latin Am during middle 19th century – sending troops to back up policies

5. War with Mexico • By mid-century, U.S. eyed Mexico’s northern provinces • 1825 – J.Q. Adams sought purchase of Texas – rejected • 1830s Mexican policies allowed settlers in TX • Settlers would be Mexican, not American • Slavery forbidden but this was ignored by southerners • Rebellion in 1836 led to Republic of Texas • Independent for 10 years – due largely to U.S. struggle over slavery • Texas annexed in 1845 • 1845 – Polk offered to buy California – rejected • Border dispute in TX led to Mexican-American War • U.S. victory gains AZ, NM & CA

6. 19th Century Commerce • Dramatic increase in commerce with Latin Am. caused U.S. to pay close attention to the region • U.S. trade with Cuba ranked third behind Britain and France • During 1850s, southern slave owners wanted to annex Cuba as a slave state – unsuccessful • Central America important because of possible canal • Some negotiations with Colombia and Britain regarding future projects • Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) between UK and US stating that neither would try to acquire exclusive rights to a canal • The 1849 gold rush in CA expanded the need for cheap and fast transport of goods to and from CA • Heavy investments in railroads across the isthmus and steamships to carry goods • Some efforts at inter-American agreements between the U.S. and Latin Am. Countries – little progress

7. U.S. Adventurism in Latin Am. • Adventurism the result of: • Severe domestic economic & social problems • Pervasive racism • Growing U.S. stake in commerce & investment in the region • Financial “panics” of 1873, 1882, and 1893 showed that domestic markets not large enough for U.S. output • Panic of 1893 caused large-scale strikes and other social ills • Expansion of foreign markets seen as a possible solution • Bankers invested in potentially lucrative foreign enterprises • Cuban sugar, Mexican mining & railroads for example • The Caribbean came to be called an “American Lake” • U.S. more willing to protect potential markets and political dominance in the region • Intervention in Haiti civil war in 1888

8. The Racial Lens • The same racial ideas that developed into Jim Crow segregation, the reservations system for Native Americans, and exclusive immigration policies also contributed to relations with Latin Am. • White supremacy reflected “the right of character, intelligence, and property to rule.” – Henry Grady, publisher of “New South” • This mindset “anticipated some of the arguments Americans later used to justify their new foreign policies.” – Historian Walter LaFeber • Adoption of “White Man’s Burden”

9. Protecting Interests • Internal unrest and European meddling threatened U.S. interests across the region in the 1890s • U.S. fleet over-stretched • Intervention in Brazil – U.S. sided with newly proclaimed republic against rebel forces who blocked harbor of Rio de Janeiro (then the capital) • British provided secret aid to the rebels • U.S. warships prevented the rebel blockade and played a crucial part in the defeat of the revolt • U.S. intervened in Nicaragua to protect investments and a potential canal project • 1893 – General Jose Zelaya created a nationalist govt. that threatened U.S. interests • Warships and U.S. Marines sent to protect U.S. lives and property

10. Venezuela 1895-96 • Boundary dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain • Region of Orinoco River along border with British Guiana • Major point of commerce • Venezuela sought U.S. help to settle dispute • President Cleveland was already concerned about Euro intervention by the British in Chile, Brazil, and Nicaragua as well as the French in Brazil and Santo Domingo • The rivalry btwn Britain and France in Africa was reflected in L.A. • Cleveland feared U.S. would be cut out of trade in northern South America markets • The U.S. would intervene whenever the actions of a European power posed a “serious and direct menace to its own integrity and welfare” – Sec. of State Richard Olney, July 1895

11. Venezuela cont. • Olney invoked the Monroe Doctrine – rejected by British as an invalid claim • Brushed aside U.S. assertion of supremacy in Western Hemisphere • Cleveland willing to go to war to uphold M.D. • Issues regarding Africa and Europe softened the British stand • Agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration • By the late 1890s, Britain was no longer militarily dominant in Latin America • Could no longer commit necessary resources to the area • Needed positive relations with U.S. due to growing threat of general war in Europe • British formally recognized U.S. dominance in L.A. with the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 • Allowed U.S. to unilaterally build, control, and fortify an isthmian canal • By 1906, Britain withdrew its fleet but retained strong economic ties

12. Spanish-American War • Primary goal of U.S. policy toward Cuba in 1890s was protecting over $50 million in investments from chronic political unrest. • Stated purpose of U.S. declaration of war against Spain was to free Cuba from Spanish control • Teller Resolution stated U.S. had no intention to annex Cuba • The U.S. fought and negotiated peace without consulting Cuba • The U.S. occupied and ruled from 1898 to 1902 when Cuba agreed to include the Platt Amendment in their constitution • U.S. intervention “perpetuated racism, corruption, violence, and economic stagnation.” – Benjamin Keen • American forces briefly occupied Cuba three times during the first two decades of the 20th century and held onto the port of Guantanamo Bay

13. Varying Policies • U.S. occupation forces ran several Caribbean and Central American countries for long periods of time • Shorter invasions took place in Honduras, Mexico, Guatemala, and Costa Rica • Not all measures were military – threats, nonrecognition of governments, and economic sanctions were others • U.S. investments in the “American Lake” rose 7X • Similar increases throughout the region • Roosevelt Corollary (1904) to the Monroe Doctrine • The U.S., as a civilized” nation, had the right to end “chronic wrongdoing” and could intervene in the Caribbean to maintain order. • “Big Stick,” “Dollar Diplomacy,” and “Moral Diplomacy”

14. Panama Canal • U.S. naval and trade requirements added urgency to a canal project • Failed French project across Isthmus of Panama laid the groundwork. • U.S. had Republican-supported alternate plan to cross Nicaragua • American attorney William Cromwell and French engineer Phillipe Bunau-Varilla convinced T. Roosevelt to pursue Panama alternative • Had to convince Colombia to sign a deal for a canal zone through the state of Panama • Colombian Senate rejected proposal of $10 Million and annual payment of $250,000 • Bunau-Varilla did not want to give up the opportunity

15. Panama Canal • Bunau-Varilla encouraged Panamanian nationalism • Previous rebellions against Colombia brought U.S. intervention on behalf of Colombia • Protecting investments as previously described • By the turn of the century, civil war had weakened Colombia and created opportunity • Successful uprising in 1903 • U.S. Navy and bribes of Colombian military officers to back off • U.S. gains 10-mile wide corridor “as if it were a sovereign of the territory.” • “In perpetuity the use, occupation, and control” of the zone. • Panamanian govt. opposed deal but didn’t want to risk U.S. simply taking it or choosing Nicaragua plan instead • U.S. gained a canal at the cost of Panamanian pride

16. Three Occupations • Dominican Republic (formerly Santo Domingo) 1916-24 • Persistent unrest led Wilson to send Marines in 1916 • Brutal repression of guerillas • Creation of Guardia Nacional – national police force • Allowed for rise of 3-decade dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo • Fed bitter resentment toward U.S. intervention • Haiti 1915-34 • Following murder of Haitian president, Wilson sent Marines to prevent Germans from taking advantage of situation and establishing a base for commerce and to disrupt routes to canal • Haitians held public offices but granted U.S. much control • U.S. troops accused of atrocities and denial of civil liberties • Troops present for 15 years

17. Three Occupations cont. • Nicaragua 1912-25 and 1926-33 • 1909 – General José Zelaya antagonized U.S. biz interests • U.S. backed a revolution that removed Zelaya • A new rebellion led Nicaragua’s president to request help from Taft – Marines came and stayed for 13 years • During the 20s, the Marines left but quickly returned because of another uprising and stayed another 7 years

18. Puerto Rico • Following Span-Am War, U.S. directly governed Puerto Rico for two years before Congress pass Foraker Act – 1900. • Established civilian govt. with governor and executive council appointed by U.S. president • PR gained an elected Senate in 1917 but legislation could be vetoed by president • Puerto Ricans gained U.S. citizenship in same year, making them eligible for draft in WWI • Prior to Span-Am war, PR had gained large degree of autonomy from Spain • Now PR had less freedom than under Spain – no native-born governor until 1947 • PR economy transformed under U.S. to monocrop (sugar) with mainly foreign owners • Economic, political, and legal dependency on U.S. set back PR’s independent development and fostered nationalism

19. Mexican Revolution • U.S. occupied ports of Veracruz and Tampico in 1914 • Seeking to eliminate control of Victoriano Huerta • Seen as too close to British and German investors • 2nd intervention in 1916 when General John Pershing led troops into northern Mexico in pursuit of Pancho Villa • Search failed but event was meant to pressure President Venustiano Carranza to weaken constitutional restraints on foreign investment • Wilson used “moral diplomacy” to withhold recognition of regimes that did not meet his approval • Used against Huerta, Carranza, and Obregón • U.S. entry into WWI in 1917 reduced policy alternatives • Threat of Mexican alliance with Germany (Zimmerman Note) forced more moderate policy