English Lexicology (IV)

1. English Lexicology (IV)

2. Contents • 10. Changes in Meaning • 11. American English To be continued English lexicology (III)

3. Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively, the content is even more unstable than the form. • This chapter will deal with the major patterns that changes in meaning follow and the causes of changes. English lexicology (III)

4. 10.1 Types of changes • Extension / Generalization • lady • Economy • Orientation • influence • holidays • slogan • Scene English lexicology (III)

5. 10.1 Types of changes • Narrowing / Specialization • Deer • girl • garage • liquor • instant reply English lexicology (III)

6. 10.1 Types of changes • Elevation / Amelioration Sth. Low, humble, unpleasant------sth. Noble, agreeable, pleasant • Marshall • Shrewd • Angel • Minister English lexicology (III)

7. 10.1 Types of changes • Degradation / Degeneration • Silly • Villain, boor, churl • Cunning English lexicology (III)

8. 10.1 Types of changes • Degradation / Degeneration • Intensifiers • terrific, fantastic, marvelous, splendid, magnificent, wonderful, superb, tremendous, overpowering, fabulous…… • horrible, outrageous, awful, dreadful…. • Weakening of meaning of intensifiers English lexicology (III)

9. 10.1 Types of changes • Transference • Subjectiveness and objectiveness • He is doubtful of success. • The future looks doubtful. • …an honourable gentleman • …an honourable invitation English lexicology (III)

10. 10.1 Types of changes • Transference • subjectiveness objectiveness • hateful: a hateful job, a hateful crime • painful:a painful experience, a painful task • pompous language/style/manner • a pompous man • solemn music/oath/duty • a solemn judge English lexicology (III)

11. 10.1 Types of changes • Transference • Subjectiveness and objectiveness depend on the collocation • a suspicious character/truth/condition • a suspicious look/glance/attitude • a dubious answer • a dubious look English lexicology (III)

12. 10.1 Types of changes • Transference English lexicology (III)

13. 10.2 Causes of changes • Social development • Pen • Manuscript • Straw • Atom • Computer English lexicology (III)

14. 10.2 Causes of changes • Class reason • Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social class. • Villain, clown, churl • Democracy, revolution, liberalism, communism, landlord, trade union English lexicology (III)

15. 10.2 Causes of changes • National Psychology • Some words or expressions shows the national psychology, especially a feeling of dislike, contempt, irony towards other nationalities. • To take French leave • Spanish athlete • Irish bull • To talk Dutch, Dutch comfort, Dutch bargain, in Dutch • An American will go to hell for a bag of coffee. English lexicology (III)

16. 10.2 Causes of changes • Racial discrimination or prejudices • Black • Black Power, Black is beautiful, Black English, Black history • Negro • African Americans, Afro-Americans • Native Americans (Indians) English lexicology (III)

17. 10.2 Causes of changes • Sexism • Man: chairman, salesman, spaceman… • Poet-poetess, hero-heroine, student-girl student, novelist-lady novelist, doctor-woman doctor, president-female president… • Chairperson, businessperson, draftsperson.. English lexicology (III)

18. 10.2 Causes of changes • Social values • Euphemism: The substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one that may be offensive, disagreeable, harsh, or blunt. English lexicology (III)

19. 10.2 Causes of changes • Social values • garbage collector------sanitation engineer • gardener-----landscape architect • servant----domestic engineer • hairdresser---beautician • old people----senior citizens, mature people, pensioner • war----conflict English lexicology (III)

20. 10.2 Causes of changes • Social values • the poor people----the disadvantage, the underprivileged • “I used to think I was poor. Then they told me I wasn’t poor, I was needy, I was deprived. Then they told me underprivileged was overused. I was disadvantaged. I still don’t have a dime. But I have a great vocabulary.” English lexicology (III)

21. 10.2 Causes of changes • Linguistic factors • Borrowing • pig, cow, sheep-----pork, beef, mutton • deer-----animal, beast English lexicology (III)

22. 10.2 Causes of changes • Linguistic factors • Simplifying • as a matter of course-----of course • above all things-----above all • God gives you a good morning---Good morning • private soldier----private • general officer----general • periodical paper----periodical • fall of leaves----fall English lexicology (III)

23. Chapter 11 American English

24. In this chapter, we aim to understand the characteristics of American English, to distinguish the differences between American English and British English. It is a laborious job, while it is important that American English be addressed in English learning. American English or British English? English lexicology (III)

25. Questions • What is American English? • Is it American English or British English we are speaking as non-native speakers? • Is there essential difference between British English and American English? • What are the major differences between them? • As non-native speakers, what is the significance for us to distinguish the differences between them? English lexicology (III)

26. 11.1 English as an international language • Users of English • English as a native language: Britain, the United States, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the West Indies and South Africa. • ESL: India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other countries. • EFL: Large numbers of people in the world speak and write English as a foreign language for the purpose of science, technology, and international communication. It has become a universal language of international communication. English lexicology (III)

27. 11.1 English as an international language • Varieties of English • As an international language, the English language has a number of varieties. • British English • American English • Australian English • Canadian English • Singapore English • ……… English lexicology (III)

28. 11.1 English as an international language • Two major varieties of English • British English (BrE) and American English(AmE) • These two varieties differ in certain details, but there is no essential difference between them because of the similarities of the basic word stock, the basic grammar and the basic phonetic system. English is unmistakable one language, with two major national dialects. • There is no superiority or inferiority as regards BrE and AmE. English lexicology (III)

29. 11.2 Growth of American English • Colonial America • The establishment in 1607 of the settlement which the explorers called Jamestown marked the beginning of British colonization in America. • By 1732 the original thirteen English colonies had been set up. The language the early immigrants brought with them was Elizabethan English, the language spoken by Shakespeare, Milton and Bunyan, which belonged to the early stage of Modern English. English lexicology (III)

30. 11.2 Growth of American English • Colonial America • The original thirteen colonies • Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut. English lexicology (III)

31. 11.2 Growth of American English • After independence • Following American independence, famous persons like Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Noah Webster begin to consider that the country should have a language of its own. • The independence led to the emergence a sense of nationality. In the field of language, this patriotic feeling was manifested by the argument for the recognition of the American variety or standard of English. English lexicology (III)

32. 11.2 Growth of American English • After independence • In 1806, Noah Webster first used “American English”.Webster proclaimed that his countrymen had not only the right to adopt new words but were obliged to modify the language to suit the new circumstances, geographical and political, in which they were placed. • Many great writers, such as Washington Irving, Walt Whitman, Ralph W. Emerson, mark Twain, and O. Henry helped to promote the development of the American English. English lexicology (III)

33. 11.2 Growth of American English • After independence • American English has developed a character of its own, reflecting the life and the physical and social environment of the American people. • The Americans invented large numbers of new words to meet their various needs. • representative, assembly, president, Congress, senator… • department store, telephone, lynch • to advocate, to antagonize, to demoralize, to donate English lexicology (III)

34. 11.2 Growth of American English • The future of American English • Since the Second World War, the United States has become literally the leader of the western world, American English has been developing and changing. There is no doubt that American English will enrich the English language greatly. • With the rapid development of modern mass media and the common needs of economic, cultural and political exchanges, American English will be more widely used in the world than British English. English lexicology (III)

35. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Major differences • Differences in grammar • Differences in spelling • Differences in pronunciation • Differences in vocabulary English lexicology (III)

36. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in grammar • On the whole BrE and AmE use the same grammar system. Differences in grammar are few in number and trifling in nature. However, it is important for non-native speakers to understand these distinctions. English lexicology (III)

37. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in grammar • Differences in prepositions • Mary aims to become a writer. • Mary aims at becoming a writer. • Please fill out the form. • Please fill in the form. • At weekends I like to ….. • On weekends I like to…… AmE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE English lexicology (III)

38. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in grammar • Differences in prepositions English lexicology (III)

39. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in grammar • Differences in prepositions • Let’s stay home. • Let’s stay at home. • The new term begins September 1. • The new term begins on September 1. • I’ll see you Sunday. • I’ll see you on Sunday. • We’re trying to plan our future. • We’re trying to plan for the future. English lexicology (III)

40. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in grammar • The use of subjunctive • I suggest that the meeting should be postponed. • I suggest that the meeting be postponed. • It is important that the motion should be placed on the agenda. • It is important that the motion be placed on the agenda. English lexicology (III)

41. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in grammar • The use of articles • Today is July first, nineteen ninety-seven. • Today is July the first, nineteen ninety-seven. • My uncle had the flu last year. • My uncle had flu last year. • It’s in bad condition. • It’s in a bad condition. English lexicology (III)

42. 11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in spelling English lexicology (III)

43. 11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in spelling English lexicology (III)

44. 11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in spelling English lexicology (III)

45. 11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE • Difference in vocabulary English lexicology (III)

46. 11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE • Difference in vocabulary English lexicology (III)

47. 11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE • Difference in vocabulary • Three terms-----two semesters or four quarters • The first year, the second year, the third year-----freshman, sophomore, junior, senior • Post-graduate-----graduate • Staff-----faculty English lexicology (III)

48. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Difference in vocabulary • Billion • First floor • Public school(BrE)------private school(AmE) • Public school (AmE)----Council school (BrE) • Cupboard English lexicology (III)

49. 11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE • Differences in pronunciation • See page 199-200 English lexicology (III)