A2 Physical Education Sport Psychology

1. A2 Physical Education Sport Psychology PERSONALITY Revision Guide

2. Personality TIPS! • Make sure you learn the specific definition of personality! • Have awareness of the links between personality and sports performance. • It is important to understand the NATURE (trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and interactionist perspectives of behaviour. • Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective. • Be aware of the problems associated with the use of personality profiling in sport.

3. Personality “The sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him unique” (Hollander). “Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck).

4. Personality Types TRAITS NARROW BAND APPROACH, GIRDANO, 1990 INTROVERT Shy, timid, reserved, aloof, self sufficient TYPE ‘A’ Highly competitive, Strong desire to succeed, Works fast, likes to control, Prone to suffer stress EXTROVERT Adventurous, confident, Sociable, Group dependent, enthusiastic TYPE ‘B’ Non-competitive, Unambitious, Works more slowly, Does not enjoy control Less prone to stress

5. NATURE V’s NURTURE Personality Theories Social Learning Theory (Bandura) “All behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment” BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT -ve = Does not consider inherited behaviour (traits) Trait Theory “People are born with established personality characteristics” • Inherited at birth. • Stable • Enduring • consistent in all situations. BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY +ve = Can be easily measured through questionnaires -ve = Does not take into account environmental influences. It is not a true indicator of behaviour. CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traits INTROVERT & EXTROVERT Interactionist Theory “Behaviour occurs from the interaction between inherited traits and learned experiences” BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT

6. Personality Theories Concentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967) Role Related Behaviour – Surface of personality Typical Response – Your usual response in most situations The Psychological Core – The ‘real you’ The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get closer to the centre of the model which shows that each layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’ personality begins to surface

7. Personality Theories Psychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933) ID Basic Instinct (no conscious control) EGO Conscious link with reality ID, EGO & SUPER EGO interact to produce individual patterns of behaviour in sport. SUPER EGO Moral Arm (social conscience) Personality is formed from the conflict of SEEKING, RELEASING and INHIBITING behaviour. ****THINK OF AGGRESSION AS AN EXAMPLE!****

8. Personality Theories Eysenck’s Personality Types Personality traits run across 2 continuums: INTROVERT: unsociable, shy & nervous EXTROVERT: sociable, outgoing & lively STABLE: calm, even-tempered, controlled 7 logical UNSTABLE: anxious, moody, unpredictable & illogical NEUROTIC (UNSTABLE) INTROVERT EXTROVERT STABLE

9. Personality Testing Methods of Testing • Observation • Psychometric methods: self report questionnaires (16 personality factor questionnaire designed by CATTELL) Problems • Questionnaires, observations and self-reports are not reliable as people can fix answers. • SCEPTICAL APPROACH: Evidence is too general – personality alone can not predict behaviour. • CREDULOUS APPROACH: Although there is a link between personality research and performance in sport, there is lack of evidence to support this.

10. Attitudes TIPS! • Make sure you understand how attitudes are formed and influenced. • You need to be able to explain how attitudes can be changed. • Try to understand the links between attitude and behaviour in sport.

11. ATTITUDE OBJECTS The people, subject or situation towards which an attitude is directed.

12. What is an ATTITUDE? ATTITUDES – A learned behavioural predisposition. (linked with personality) UNSTABLE LEARNED CAN BE CHANGED/ CONTROLLED DIRECTED TOWARDS ATTITUDE OBJECTS ENDURING EMOTIONAL & BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE

13. Formation of Attitudes COACHES/ TEACHERS PAST EXPERIENCES ATTITUDES PREDUJICE PARENTS MEDIA FRIENDS/ PEERS Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences. Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other people.

14. Triadic Model of Attitudes This is known as the information component This concerns how a person intends to behave towards an attitude object This is known as the emotional component

15. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) If a person hold two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called DISSONANCE.

16. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would change. Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can change the cognitive component. Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the affective component. If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed. Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from AS SKILL

17. Persuasive Communication Theory You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading someone to change their attitude. Would these people persuade you or would they just cause you stress?

18. Persuasive Communication Theory • The Persuader Significant other with high status 2. The Message Positive to initiate the change • PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION • the personmust • pay attention • - understand • - accept • - retain • the message being given • the coach must • - be expert • - be trustworthy • the message must • - be clear • - be unambiguous • - be balanced between pros and cons 3. The recipients Easy to changed an attitude if the recipient really wishes to be changed 4. The situation The presence of other persuaders

19. TASK………… You are a GCSE PE pupil. How could persuasive communication change your negative attitude towards cross country?

20. ANSWER………… • A significant other, e.g. teacher/captain persuades you that cross country has excellent fitness benefits for a GCSE PE pupil. The teacher explains that they can chose cross country as one of their 4 sports. • The teacher tells you it will improve your practical grade if you opt for cross country. • You understand that this could improve your overall practical grade so you begin to realise the benefits of taking part. • Other pupils in your GCSE class share positive experiences of cross country with you and actively encourage you to take part.

21. TASK………… How could a physical education teacher change the negative attitude that a pupil may have towards swimming?

22. ANSWER….. • Educate the pupil about the benefits of swimming • Use cognitive dissonance theory • Persuasive communication from a significant other, e.g. teacher • Set achievable goals to ensure pupil achieves success and experiences enjoyment. • Offer rewards, e.g. praise, trophies. • Familiarise with role models from within the sport of swimming. • Use floats to make execution of some strokes easier. • Attribution retraining.

23. To conclude………. • Attitudes are generally poor predictors of behaviour. • Social and situational factors influence actual behaviour very strongly. • “Behavioural intention is the strongest predictor of behaviour (Fishbein, 1974).”

24. Achievement Motivation TIPS! • You need to understand the meaning of the term ‘achievement motivation’. • Make sure you know the characteristics of the different personality types – TAS and TAF. • You need to be aware of the links between personality and the motive to achieve. • It is important to make links between TAS and TAF and ‘attributions’ for success and failure.

25. Achievement Motivation Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by sports psychologists to link PERSONALITY and COMPETITIVENESS. The major issue centres on the extent to which an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. Success in sport is measured against some type of COMPETITIVE GOAL.

26. Types of Goals • According to BIDDLE, there are several types of goal against which success can be judged: • MASTERY or TASK GOALS: Associated with self-improvement, e.g. trying to achieve a PB in athletics (the same as PROCESS GOALS). • EGO or ABILITY GOALS: Involve a comparison against ones rivals, e.g. beating everyone else to win the club tennis tournament (the same as OUTCOME GOALS) • SOCIALLY APPROVED GOALS: Involves seeking social reinforcement as a measure of success, e.g. winning to earn approval from parents or coaches. THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL!

27. Atkinson & McClelland (1976) – Interactionist View In any challenging situation, everyone will have both a ‘need to achieve’ and a ‘need to avoid failure’. Whichever feeling is stronger will determine whether the task is accepted or declined. Competitive orientation is generated through personality and situational factors

28. Personality Factors A = TAS someone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure and will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky, e.g. the hard route up a rock face B = TAF someone with a high need to avoid failure will probably have a low need to achieve and will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved, e.g. the easy route up the rock face TAS = Tendency to APPROACH success TAF = Tendency to AVOID failure

29. Situational Factors A = If the probability of success low (competing against the world champion) you will strive very hard to win (incentive high). You will be highly chuffed if you win. B = If the probability of success high (competing in local club match) you don’t need to try as hard to win (incentive low and expect to win easily). It is not so pleasing if you win.

30. What can the coach do? • IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach) • Increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and satisfaction • Ensure that goals are achievable • Ensure that at least some situations guarantee success • and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress • Ensure that tasks are challenging • Ensure that the probability of success is good • Ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth winning?)

31. What can the coach do? • REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF) • Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying about failure • Focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability. This avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned helplessness. • Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing against a much superior opponent) • if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals).

32. Group Dynamics TIPS! • Be able to define the terms ‘group’ and ‘team’. • You need to understand Steiner’s model of group performance. • Be able to explain the Ringlemann effect and social loafing and how they damage the cohesiveness of a team. • Learn the factors affecting the cohesiveness of a group and how any breakdowns can be prevented. • Learn the characteristics of an effective leader. • Describe emergent and prescribed leaders. • You need to be able to understand the different perspectives on and theories of leadership.

33. Groups “Groups are those social aggregates that involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction” (McGrath) A collective identity GROUPS (Carron) A sense of shared purpose A clear structure for communication

34. Group Cohesion “The extent to which a group sticks together in pursuit of a common goal.” TASK COHESION The way team members work together to successfully complete a task, e.g. a football team sets Out to win by adopting attacking Tactics at home & away matches Vital in INTERACTIVE Sports, e.g. hockey SOCIAL COHESION The personal relationships within a group which relies on individuals enjoying social interaction, e.g. strong Bond developed whilst on tour. Vital in CO-ACTIVE sports, e.g. track and field

35. Group Dynamics “The social processes operating within the group between individual members.” • TO ACHIEVE COHESION • Break down cliques • and sub groups • Separate pairs • Integrate isolates SUB GROUPS Small groups contained within the whole group GROUP DYNAMIC SOCIOGRAM The best way of illustrating the group dynamics of a team. Team sports rely on units within the team Working closely together

36. Steiner’s Model ACTUAL = POTENTIAL - LOSSES DUE TO PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY FAULTY PROCESSES (AP) (PP) (FP) The maximum capability of the group when cohesiveness is strongest Factors that go wrong in team performance which impede/ prevent group cohesion e.g. co-ordination losses & motivational losses The team performance at any given time (due to successful interaction) GROUP COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT BINDS A GROUP TOGETHER, HELPING TO PREVENT FAULTY PROCESSES.

37. Faulty Processes • Co-ordination Losses • These occur when the ‘operational effectiveness’ of the group cannot be sustained for the whole match. • Planned strategies/tactics may go wrong due to positional error or bad timing, e.g. Line out in rugby. • Motivation Losses • This may occur if the task is too difficult. • Also an individual might suffer loss of motivation causing them to withdraw effort and coast through that part of the game. A motivation loss that leads to a reduction in effort is called SOCIAL LOAFING. This is called when an individuals efforts go unnoticed or when someone feels like the others on their team are not trying hard enough. People with low SC tend to be loafers. A co-ordination loss that leads to a breakdown in team work is called the RINGLEMANN EFFECT. Problems with team co-ordination are more likely to increase as the number of team members increase.

38. Group Locomotion “ The process that explains the reasons why the group has formed. It symbolises the activity of the team.” ****Don’t always assume that good players make good leaders! Make sure you know the characteristics of a good leader**** For locomotion to be efficient there must be a LEADER to ensure the co-ordination of the team.

39. Think of Woody from Toy Story! Leadership Determination Understand the needs of others Good communication skills Highly developed perception skills What makes a good Leader? Ambition Experience Vision Good at making decisions Empathy with team members

40. Selection of a Leader EMERGENT LEADERS: Already belongs to the group & selection is made formally, e.g. by vote or interview. PRECRIBED LEADERS: Selected from outside of the group and is known as an external appointment.

41. Leadership Theories IS A LEADER BORN OR MADE? • TRAIT APPROACH: Leaders are born with the skills necessary to take charge……however, although certain traits may be helpful in leadership, they are not essential, so this theory is NOT A GOOD PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOUR. • SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: The skills of leadership can be acquired by copying others and then developed through experiences. Copying successful role models is called ‘vicarious reinforcement.’ This DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE. • INTERACTIONIST THEORY: Leaders emerge because of inherited abilities (traits) and learned skills. Interactionist theory gives a MORE REALISTIC EXPLANATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOURS IN SPORT.

42. Styles of Leadership • Autocratic Leaders (task orientated): • Tend to make all decisions • Motivated to complete a task as quickly and effectively as possible • Authoritarian style – they do not take into account the groups opinions • Does not share responsibility • Effective when quick decisions need to be made • Democratic Leaders (social/personal orientated): • Shares decisions and responsibilities with group • Interested in developing inter-personal relationships within the team • Effective in co-active sports • Laisser-faire Leaders: • Leader stands aside and allows the group to make their own decisions • Members of this type of group tend to be aggressive towards one another when mistakes occurred and they gave up easily.

43. Fiedler’s Contingency Model According to Fiedler, the correct style of leadership to adopt depends on the ‘favourableness’ of the situation. AUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FVOURABLE situations. DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY FAVOURABLE situations.

44. Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership

45. Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership CHELLANDURAIbelieved that the effectiveness of the group could be judged on: • The degree of success accomplished during a task • The extent to which the group experienced satisfaction while being led to the goal. SITUATIONAL, LEADER AND GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISCS interact to determine the behaviour adopted by the leader (these are ANTECEDENTS) REQUIRED, ACTUAL AND PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR are 3 types of leader behaviour that would be guided by these antecedents. If all three of the leader behaviours are CONGRUENT (coincide exactly) then members will be highly satisfied and produce high group performance. Effective leadership has taken place if the ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR HAS SURPASSED THE SITUATIONAL DEMANDS AND THE STYLE HAS MET WITH THE APPROVAL OF THE GROUP.

46. Mental Preparation TIPS! • You need to understand the meaning and links between commitment, self-confidence, concentration and control of emotion. • Be able to explain each term in the context of mental preparation for sport performance. • You must be able to identify and explain the relevant theories associated with each term.

47. Mental Preparation 4 C’ s

48. LINKED WITH AROUSAL! Concentration “A state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific aim or activity.” “Mistakes in top level sport happen not because technique is suspect, but because of attentional errors” (MARTENS) When AROUSAL IS LOW the PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS and an excessive number of environmental cues enter into the information processing system. SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS NOT in operation and CONCENTRATION ON RELEVANT INFORMATION IS DIFFICULT. **********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS ********** LOW AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS LIMITED SELECTIVE ATTENTION =LACK OF CONCENTRATION

49. Cue Utilisation Theory This theory predicts ‘THE SELECTION OF THE MOST RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AT THE OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVEL’. As arousal increases the perceptual field will adjust to the ideal width enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant cues/information. Selective attention is fully operational and the potential to concentrate is maximised. OPTIMAL AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD AT IDEAL WIDTH SELECTIVE ATTENTIONS IN OPERATION =CONCENTRATION IS MAXIMISED! Beyond this optimal threshold (over aroused), the perceptual focus narrows excessively and the relevant cues may be missed. The athlete appears highly agitated and panics. This condition is known as HYPER-VIGILANCE or PANIC. HIGH AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD NARROWS RELEVANT CUES MISSED =HYPER-VIGILANCE & PANIC

50. Think of the difference between a C & GA in Netball NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES All players have a preferred attentional style. To improve performance it is necessary to operate successfully in all styles. • NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES • BROAD • - a player concentrates on the whole game • - all players’ positions and movements • - open skills • NARROW • - the player concentrates on one aspect of the game • - the goalkeeper • - closed skills • INTERNAL • - the player decides to concentrate on his own technique • EXTERNAL • -the player focuses on the position of his opposite number EXTERNAL BROAD NARROW INTERNAL