A2 Sport Psychology Revision Guide

1. A2 Sport Psychology RevisionGuide

2. Sport Psychology • Individual Aspects of Sport Performance • Group Dynamics • Mental Preparation for Sport Performance • Competition Effects • Consequences of Sport Performance

3. Individual Aspects of Sport Performance • Personality • Attitude • Motivation

4. Personality Social Learning Theories. Interactionist Theories Trait Theories • Inherited • Stable • Enduring • e.g Eyensenk • Learned • Unstable • Environment • e.g Bandura ‘Personality is the sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him or her unique’ (Hollander)

5. Cattells 16PF (Trait Theory) 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire. Answering a series of questions on a scale of 1-5 on how much you agree with a statement.

6. Eysenck (Trait Theory) Eysenck proposed that only two factors were necessary to explain individual differences in personality. He argued that Cattell's model contained too many factors which were similar to each other, and that a simple two factor model could encompass the 16 traits proposed by Cattell. This model had the following dimensions: Extrovert – Lively, outgoing, sociable, expressive. Introvert – Quiet, independent, private. Stable – Calm, controlled. Unstable (Neurotic) – Anxious, worried.

7. Personality Types (Trait Theory) Leading on from Eysenck, two distinct personality types were identified. • TYPE B • characterised by : • relaxed and patient • allow time for tasks to be completed • tolerance of others’ mistakes • delegates easily • low personal stress • calm and unflappable in most situations • less competitive • TYPE A • characterised by : • impatience • works at a rapid pace • higher levels of stress • easily aroused • strong desire to succeed • anxiety in stressful situations • has a need to be in control

8. Concentric Ring Theory PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE • beliefs and values that remain more or less permanent • example : a sportsman’s belief that fair play underlies his attitude on the field of play ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR • in other situations we may behave differently • example : Getting frustrated during a game and arguing with the ref. SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT • how the behaviour and expectations of others affect our role • example : a player argues with the referee because others have done so and got away with it before • TYPICAL RESPONSES • the way in which an individual responds in certain situations • example : Not arguing with the ref.

9. Psychodynamic Theory Fullfill the ID (Steal Food/ Fight) The moral Arm Stealing and Fighting Are Wrong. The SUPER-EGO The EGO The ID The Basic Instinct (Hunger/Anger)

10. Social Learning Theory SOCIALISATION • sport has a socialising effect • participation in sport establishes norms and values of our society BANDURA • behaviour is determined by the situation • social comparison • behaving the same way as the peer group • social approval or disapproval determines our responses • behaviour is reinforced or penalised VICARIOUS CONDITIONING • the learning of emotional responses through observational learning • learning to become angry after a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • explains behaviour in terms of the reaction to specific situations • we learn to dea with situations by observing others • or by observing the results of our own behaviour on others • and by modelling our own behaviour on what we have seen • athletes learn behaviour by watching others

11. Interactionist Theory • Personality is a combination of both genetically inheritted traits and learned behaviour. • Somebody who is born with outgoing, aggressive and hot-headed personality characteristics may learn to control and modify them to be more controlled and less aggressive in their personality. – Parental discipline when a child misbehaves, negative reinforcement from peers. • Somebody who is born with more introverted and quiet personality traits may develop a more open and extroverted personality through the environment that they are brought up in. – Lots of interaction with other people, opportunity to play sports and join teams.

12. MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS • before or after the event • not directly related to performance • open ended and flexible • difficult to quantify accurately • may be influenced by the interviewer • demand characteristics QUESTIONNAIRES • before or after the event • not directly related to performance • rigidly and systematically set out • able to quantify accurately • would not be influenced by another • can be used to assess specific traits • demand characteristics OBSERVATION • made during an actual event • directly related to performance • varies according to the competitive nature of the event • difficult to quantify accurately • may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes Demand characteristics refers to an experiment where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior accordingly

13. Limitations of Personality Profiling • Not always an accurate predictor of type of activity undertaken. • Extroverts – will enjoy individual sports, • Introverts will play team games. • Not always an accurate predictor of levels of success in sport. Damn it!

14. Attitudes • ATTITUDES • a combination of beliefs and feelings about : • objects • people • situations • (called attitude objects) • this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them • learned or organised through experience • evaluative • they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively • about an attitude object • tend to be deep seated • and enduring • but can change or be changed

15. FORMATION OF ATTITUDES Past Experiences Family Where do our attitudes come from? Peers Media Teachers/Coaches

16. Cognitive (Knowledge/Beliefs) Affective (feelings/emotions) Behavioural (Intended behavior) COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL Going to the gym will get you fit. I enjoy going to the gym I go to the gym twice a week.

17. PREJUDICE AND SPORTSTEREOTYPES PREJUDICE • a prejudgement of a person, group, or situation • usually based on inadequate information • or inaccurate or biased information • which reinforces stereotypes • example : • women are often excluded from male dominated sports clubs or events NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES • women in strength, endurance and contact sports • participation of particular ethnicgroups in specific sports or positions within teams • participation of the disabled in physical activity • older age groups interest and ability at sport Positive Prejudice = my opponent will be quick at running because he is black. Negative Prejudice = She can’t play football because she is a girl.

18. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT POSITIVE ATTITUDE • has a positive physical self-concept • satisfaction from participation in sport • believe sport promotes health • success at sport • willing to try new activities • encouraged by significant others • participates regularly • opportunity to participate NEGATIVE ATTITUDES • had negative experiences at sport • have lifestyle which makes regular sport difficult • find sport frustrating • lack encouragement • unlikely to participate in sport • have a negative self concept • find sport boring

19. Changing Attitudes Cognitive Dissonance: If a person holds 2 ideas that oppose & conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises. This emotional discomfort is called dissonance. e.g. You want to join the gym but don’t think you have enough time Changing one aspect of the triadic model can change your attitude. e.g. – You get a better understanding of the health benefits of joining the gym and make time in your life to attend twice a week. Persuasive Communication: Changing attitudes through the process of persuasion. The persuader needs to be significant & have high status. The message needs to be presented in a way that makes the recipient want to change attitude. The recipients needs to want to change their attitude The situation has to be right – attitudes are easier to change if others are present.

20. Motivation • Extrinsic • Praise/Critisism • Fame • Trophies/Medals • Money • Pace Points Motivation “Drive to succeed” • Intrinsic • Competence • Mastery • Feeling good.

21. Achievement Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION • the drive to achieve success for its own sake • related to • Competitiveness (sport specific) • persistence • striving for perfection • influenced by • personality factors • need to achieve • need to avoid failure • situational factors • probability of success • incentive value of success NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) Tendency to approach success (TAS) • this personality type likes a challenge (approach behaviour) • is not afraid of failure • has high task persistence • Attribute success to internal factors NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF) Tendency to avoid failure (TAF) • this personality type avoids challenges (avoidance behaviour) • does not take risks • often gives up • Attribute success to external factors.

22. Achievement Motivation A = TAS • someone with a high need to achieve • will probably have a low need to avoid failure • will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky • the hard route up a rock face B = TAF • someone with a high ne to avoid failure • will probably have a low need to achieve • will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved • the easy route up the rock face

23. Incentive Value (Achievement Motivation) A = • probability of success low • (competing against the world champion) • therefore strive very hard to win • (incentive high) • (will be highly chuffed if win) B = • probability of sucess high • (competing in local club match) • therefore don’t need to try as hard to win • (incentive low) • (and expect to win easily) • (not so pleasing)

24. Group Dynamics • Groups and Teams • Leadership

25. What is A Group? • 2 or more people • Mutual awareness • Interacting with each other • Common goal or purpose.

26. PERSONAL • factors which members believe are important • motives for taking part • give opportunities for motives to be realised • develop ownership feelings and social groupings within the team ENVIRONMENTAL • factors binding members to a team • contracts, location, age, eligibility • avoid star system, provide opportunities for socialising Cohesion LEADERSHIP • the behaviour of leaders and coaches • coaches should use all leadership behaviours to influence different individuals TEAM • factors relating to the group • team identity, targets, member ability and role • creation of team short and long-term goals • rewarding of individual and team efforts

27. Steiner’s Model of Group Performance Actual productivity = Potential productivity - Losses due to faulty processes. • Potential productivity is primarily decided by the individual skill levels of team members, • Faulty Processes are either Motivational Loses or Co-ordination Loses.

28. Motivational Loses (Social Loafing) Motivational Problems • People seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their own • Example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly faster than single sculls • This is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’ Why? • Individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group cohesion • can hide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members • Performers are not recognised for their contribution to the team. • Example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order to win/or What can a coach do? • Loafing can be eliminated if the contribution of an individual can be identified • Setting specific and measurable goals • Recording individual data/statitics – passes/shots etc

29. Co-Ordination Losses Co-ordination losses is depended on how players on the pitch co-ordinate their movement and decision making with each other. Factors that affect it include; • The number or players on the pitch. • if one player is being selfish or aggressive • if a defence is not working together The greater the task cohesion and understanding of each others roles there is between players, the less the losses dues to co-ordination. Practice makes Perfect!

30. Leadership Leaders • can influence the behaviour of others towards required goals • will influence effective team cohesion • will help fulfil expectations of a team • develops an environment in which a group is motivated rewarded and helped towards its common goals • Where do leaders come from? • emergent leaders come fromwithin a • group • because of their skill and abilities • or through nomination / election • prescribed leaders are appointedby an • agency outside the • group • Characteristics of a good leader • Empathetic • Experienced • Committed • Communication Skills

31. Leadership Theories Was Martin Johnson born to be a great leader or did he learn the necessary qualities? Or was it a combination of the two? (Interactionist) The ‘great man’ theory (trait) • NATURE • leaders are born not made • leaders have relevant innate personality qualities Social learning theory • NURTURE • leaders learn their skills through watching and imitating models • leaders are formed throughout life • by social or environmental influences • observation of a model • high status of a model • imitation or copying of behaviour

32. Leadership Styles Three different types of leadership styles have been identified. • Autocratic (Task) Orientated – makes all the decisions. • Democratic (Social) Orientated – shares the decisions with members of the group, seeks advice and is prepared to change his/her mind. • Laissez Faire – lets others make decisions. Each type of leader can be effective in different situations.

33. Fiedler’s Contingency Model Fiedler's model assumes that group performance depends on: Leadership style and Situational favourableness determined by three factors: 1. Leader-member relations - Degree to which a leader is accepted and supported by the group members. 2. Task structure - Extent to which the task is structured and defined, with clear goals and procedures. (facilities/equipment/weather/support) 3. Position power - The ability of a leader to control subordinates through reward and punishment. High levels of these three factors give the most favourable situation, low levels, the least favourable. Democratic (Relationship-motivated) leaders are most effective in moderately favourable situations. Autocratic (Task-motivated) leaders are most effective at either end of the scale. Fiedler suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change their situation to achieve effectiveness, rather than change their leadership style.

34. Chellandurai’s Mutli-Dimensional Model of Leadership Member Characteristics Preferred (Leader) Behaviour Satisfaction/Performance Leader Characteristics Actual (Leader) Behaviour Situational Characteristics Required (Leader) Behaviour

35. Mental Preparation for Sports Performance • Commitment • (Self) Confidence • Concentration • (Emotional) Control

36. Goal Setting Effective goal setting is a useful tool that can be used to manage anxiety (control), raise motivation and therefore commitment levels and develop self confidence of the performer. • Specific • Measurable • Accepted • Realistic • Time Phased • Exciting • Recorded Goals can be either Process – Technique Performance – Time Product – Position And… Mastery/Task – Self improvement Ego/Ability – comparison with others Socially approved. – Seeking social reinforcement. Goals should be progressive from short to long term. Short Term Medium Term Long Term

37. Self Confidence Self-Confidence A generic belief that one can succeed. An attitude Self-Efficacy A situational specific form of self-confidence. The perception of an ability to perform a particular sporting task

38. Bandura Performance Efficacy Expectation Emotional Arousal Vicarious Experiences Verbal Persuasion Previous Accomplishments • if arousal is too high • state anxiety - A-state • this could lead to low self-efficacy • mental rehearsal / physical relaxation could lead to greater confidence and a calmer approach consist of what has been observed in others performing a similar skill example : observing another player in your team dribbling a soccer ball, if the model is of similar age / ability and is successful then this may lead to greater self-efficacy encouragement can lead to greater self-efficacy if the person giving encouragement is of high status compared with the performer consist of past experiences example : previously performed skill at dribbling a soccer ball if this is successful then this leads to greater self-efficacy at this particular task in the future

39. SELF-CONFIDENCE Confidence • arouses positive emotions • allows the athlete to • remain calm under pressure • affects game strategies • a confident player plays to win even if it means taking risks • affects psychological momentum • a confident athlete take each point or play at a time • and never gives up • even when defeat is imminent • facilitates concentration • enables focus on the important aspects of a task • enables the setting of challenging but realistic goals • increases effort

40. VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE trait sport confidence • theusual level of self-confidence • example :a footballer is confident in his shooting ability. Sports Confidence competitiveorientation • the perceived opportunity to achieve a sport performance • Type of goals you set. • example : the footballer is motivated to play well in the cup final. state sport confidence • the level of self confidence related to a specific situation • example :a footballer has low state confidence in taking a penalty in the cup final.

41. Concentration • Involves focusing attention onto the relevant environmental cues maintaining attention focus until the skill has been completed. • Arousal is linked to concentration. When arousal is low, the perceptual field widens taking in too much information for information processing system to deal with. • Selective attention is not in operation & concentration on relevant information is difficult. • Information overload occurs & decision-making is impeded causing mistakes in performance. • As arousal increases, the perceptual field adjusts to the ideal width enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant information. Selective attention is fully operational allowing selective attention to occur.

42. Awareness Cue Utilisation Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal leads to a decrease in number of cues that can be utilised. • Cues can be used by the sportsperson • to direct attention • to trigger appropriate arousal responses • to enable attentional focus at a relevant moment • sometimes, narrowing of attentional focus by an aroused player will cause lack of awareness of broader play issues

43. ATTENTIONAL STYLES (Nideffer) INTERNAL/NARROW - A • the player decides to concentrate on his own technique INTERNAL/BROAD - B • the player focuses on the team tactics given by the coach before a game. EXTERNAL/BROAD - C • a player concentrates on the whole game • all players’ positions and movements • open skills EXTERNAL/NARROW - D • the player concentrates on one aspect of the game • the goalkeeper • closed skills

44. Emotional Control Activation – a state of readiness to perform. Arousal - a state of mental and physical preparedness for action • this is the level of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve • it needs to be undercontroland at the right level depending on the task and facilitates the ability to focus (concentrate) • Extroverts, Skilful performers and simple tasks require higher levels of arousal. Anxiety –an emotional state similar to fear associated with; • physiological (somatic) arousal • psychological (cognitive) arousal • Can be both State and Trait

45. AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY DRIVE THEORY • the higher the arousal level • the higher the achievement / performance level • the more likely that a well-learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced Increased Arousal WITH INCREASED AROUSAL • the dominant habit / most usual behaviour will be reproduced • a poorly-learned skill will give a performance full of mistakes • a well-learned skill will give a skilled performance Expert Novice Increased in Performance Decrease in Performance

46. INVERTED U THEORY INVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON type of activity / task complexity • gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal • fine skills (snooker) require low arousal skill level of the performer • the more skilful the performer • the higher the optimum arousal could be personality of the performer • the more extrovert the performer • the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance • whereas introverts would optimise performance at lower arousal levels • there is an optimum arousal level • if aroused more than this • performance will decline

47. EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE INHIBITION • inhibition of performance PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS • stress may act directly on the information processing of skill • motor elements of skill are performed less well • muscles tense • muscular control is reduced CONCENTRATION • concentration is difficult • span of attention is narrowed STRESS • awareness of being under stress itself acts as a stressor

48. Peak Flow Experience Flow state is attained when the performer has a balanced perception of the demands of the situation & his/her ability to cope. High Somatic Arousal Excitement Anger Peak Flow Happiness Anxiety Relaxed Bored Drowsiness Fatigue Low Cognitive Arousal High Cognitive Arousal When this happens the athlete assumes control over all internal & environmental variables & a time of great happiness & self-fulfilment is experienced. Low Somatic Arousal

49. Individual Zone of Optimal Fuctioning (Hanin) Top athletes have different ZOF. Optimal level of arousal does not always occur at the mid point of the arousal continuum. Optimal level of arousal is not a single point but a band width. Teachers and coaches need to be aware of their performer’s ZOF and work towards this. 0 Characteristics of being in the zone: Performance appears effortless & automatic with athlete feeling in full control; attention & concentration is focused; the execution of the skill brings enjoyment & satisfaction.

50. Anxiety ‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial inbalance between the individual’s perception of their ability & their perception of the demands & importance of the situation.’ Speilberger identified both trait and state anxiety. He measured them using simple aquestionaire. Called the State-Trait-Anxiety-Inventory (STAI) A similar test Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)was later devised to specifically look at the affect competition has on anxiety. Questions are asked about current feelings (state) and general feelings (trait) a score out of 80 is given.