Theories of Motivation

1. 4 Theories of Motivation

2. Chapter Outline • What Is Motivation? • Needs Theories of Motivation • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory • ERG Theory • Motivation-Hygiene Theory • McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Summarizing Needs Theories • Process Theories of Motivation • Expectancy Theory • Goal-Setting Theory • Self-Efficacy Theory

3. Chapter Outline • Responses to the Reward System • Equity Theory • Fair Process and Treatment • Self-Determination Theory • Increasing Intrinsic Motivation • Motivating through Reinforcement • Methods of Shaping Behaviour • Schedules of Reinforcement • Reinforcement in the Workplace • Motivation for Whom? • Putting it all Together

4. Learning Outcomes • What is motivation? • How do needs motivate people? • Are there other ways to motivate people? • Do equity and fairness matter? • What role does reinforcement play in motivation? • What are the ethics behind motivation theories?

5. What Is Motivation? • Motivation • The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal: • Intensity: How hard a person tries • Direction: Where effort is channelled • Persistence: How long effort is maintained

6. Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Assumptions Employees dislike work Employees attempt to avoid work Employees must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment if they are to perform. Theory Y Assumptions Employees like to work Employees are creative, and seek responsibility Employees can exercise self-direction and self-control.

7. Motivators • Intrinsic Motivators • A person’s internal desire to do something • interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction • Extrinsic Motivators • Motivation that comes from outside the person • pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards

8. Needs Theories of Motivation • Basic idea • Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory • Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory • Alderfer’s ERG Theory • McClelland’s Theory of Needs

9. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Physiological • Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs • Safety • Includes security and protection from physical & emotional harm • Social • Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship • Esteem • Includes internal esteem factors: self-respect, autonomy, and achievement • Includes external esteem factors: status, recognition, and attention • Self-actualization • The drive to become what one is capable of becoming • Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment

10. Exhibit 4-1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

11. Alderfer’s ERG Theory • Existence • Concerned with providing basic material existence requirements. • Relatedness • Desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. • Growth • Intrinsic desire for personal development.

12. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Motivators Sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors (content of work) Achievement Recognition Challenging, varied, or interesting work Responsibility Advancement Growth Hygiene factors Sources of dissatisfaction Extrinsic factors (context of work) Company policy and administration Unhappy relationship with employee’s supervisor Poor interpersonal relations with one’s peers Poor working conditions

13. Exhibit 4-2 Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

14. Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

15. Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory • Procedure Herzberg used is limited by its methodology. • Reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned. • No overall measure of satisfaction was used. • Herzberg assumed that a relationship exists between satisfaction and productivity

16. McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Need for achievement • The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed • Need for power • The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise • Need for affiliation • The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

17. Exhibit 4-4 Relationship of Various Needs Theories

18. Summary: Hierarchy of Needs • All the need theories propose a similar idea: Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation. • Maslow:Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs. • Herzberg:Motivators lead to satisfaction. Hygiene factors must be met if person is not to be dissatisfied. However, they will not lead to satisfaction. • Alderfer:More than one need can be important at the same time. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases. • McClelland’s:People vary in the types of needs they have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or power.

19. Summary: Impact of Theory • Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Most managers are familiar with it. • Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time. • Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells us that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks. • McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they do personally.

20. Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory • Maslow:Research does not generally validate the theory. In particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted. • Herzberg:Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a link between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or demonstrated. • Alderfer: Ignores situational variables. • McClelland’s: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.

21. Process Theories of Motivation • Look at the actual process of motivation • Expectancy theory • Goal-setting theory • Self-efficacy theory

22. Expectancy Theory • The theory that individuals act depending on: • whether their effort will lead to good performance • whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome • whether that outcome is attractive to them

23. Expectancy Relationships • The theory focuses on three relationships: • Effort-Performance Relationship • The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance • Performance-Reward Relationship • The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to organizational rewards • Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship • The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and are attractive to the individual

24. Exhibit 4-7 Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory

25. Importance of Providing Performance Feedback • An effective performance review: • Employee perceives the appraisal as fair • Manager is sincere • Climate is constructive • Performance review should be more like a counselling activity than a judgment process, allowing the review to evolve out of the employee’s own self-evaluation.

26. Goal-Setting Theory • The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance. • Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. • Specific goals increase performance. • Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. • Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. • Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.” • The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.

27. Management by Objectives • A program that encompasses: • Specific goals (tangible, verifiable, and measurable) • Participative decision-making • Explicit time period • Performance feedback

28. How Does Goal Setting Motivate? • Goals: • Direct attention • Regulate effort • Increase persistence • Encourage the development of strategies and action plans

29. Goals Should Be SMART • For goals to be effective, they should be SMART: • Specific • Measurable • Attainable • Results Oriented • Time bound

30. Exhibit 4-8 Locke’s Model of Goal Setting

31. Self-Efficacy Theory • Self Efficacy also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory • An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. • The higher your self efficacy the more confident you are in your ability to succeed in a task

32. Four Ways to Improve Self Efficacy • Enactive Mastery • Gaining relevant experience • Vicarious Modelling • Confidence gained by seeing someone else perform the task. • Verbal Persuasion • Confidence gained because someone convinces you that you have the necessary skills to succeed. • Arousal • An energized state can drive a person to complete the task.

33. Exhibit 4-9 Joint Efforts of Goals andSelf Efficacy on Performance

34. Responses to the Reward System • Equity Theory • Fair Process and Treatment • Self-Determination Theory • Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

35. Exhibit 4-10 Equity Theory

36. Equity Theory • Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive. • Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.

37. Equity Comparisons • Self-inside • An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization. • Self-outside • An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization. • Other-inside • Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization. • Other-outside • Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.

38. Responses to Inequity Change their inputs. Change their outcomes. Adjust perceptions of self. Adjust perceptions of others. Choose a different referent. Leave the field.

39. Fair Process and Treatment • Historically, equity theory focused on: • Distributive Justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of resources among individuals. • Equity is thought of from various standpoints • Organizational Justice: an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. • Procedural Justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. • Interactional Justice: an individual’s perception of the degree to which she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect,

40. Exhibit 4-11 Model of Organizational Justice

41. Self-Determination Theory • People prefer to feel they have control over their actions • If a previously enjoyed task feels more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity, it will undermine motivation. • Much research on self-determination theory in OB has focused on cognitive evaluation theory.

42. Self-Determination Theory • The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work effort that was previously rewarded intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s motivation. • Intrinsic Motivators • A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction. • Extrinsic Motivators • Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.

43. Cognitive Evaluation Theory • A recent outgrowth of Cognitive Evaluation Theory isself concordance, which considers the degree to which people’s reasons for pursuing goals is consistent with their interests and core values. • OB research suggest that people who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasonsare more satisfied with their jobs, feel like they fit into their organization better, and may perform better.

44. Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation • Sense of choice • Sense of competence • Sense of meaningfulness • Sense of progress • Managers can act in ways that will build these intrinsic rewards for their employees.

45. Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation

46. Motivating Through Reinforcement • Skinner suggested that people learn how to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. • This idea is known as operant conditioning. • Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.

47. Methods of Shaping Behaviour • Positive reinforcement • Following a response with something pleasant. • Negative reinforcement • Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant. • Punishment • Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour. • Extinction • Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour.

48. Exhibit 4-13 Types of Reinforcement

49. Schedules of Reinforcement • The two major types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermittent. • Continuous reinforcement:reinforces desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated. • Intermittent reinforcement:ratio or interval • The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behaviour. • The individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaviour after a particular time has elapsed.

50. Fixed and Variable Reinforcements • A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable. • Fixed-interval schedule • Variable-interval schedule • Fixed-ratio schedule • Variable-ratio schedule