Motivation Theories

1. Motivation Theories

2. Needs Theory (McClelland) • Needs are shaped over time by our experiences over time. Most of these fall into three general categories of needs: • Achievement (nAch) • Affiliation (nAff) • Power (nPow)

3. We have different preferences • We will tend have one of these needs that affects us more powerfully than others and thus affects our behaviors: • Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recognition of how well they are doing. They will avoid low risk activities that have no chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a significant chance of failure. • Affiliation seekers look for harmonious relationships with other people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing out. They seek approval rather than recognition. • Power seekers want power either to control other people (for their own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They seek neither recognition nor approval from others -- only agreement and compliance.

4. So what? • Using it • Challenge achievers with stretching goals. • Offer affiliation-seekers safety and approval. • Beware of personal power-seekers trying to turn the tables on you or use other Machiavellian methods. Make sure you have sufficient power of your own, or show how you can help them achieve more power.  • Defending • Understand your own tendencies. Curb the excesses and, especially if you seek affiliation, beware of those who would use this against you and for their own benefit alone.

5. Cognitive Dissonance • Description • This is the feeling of uncomfortable tension which comes from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at the same time. • Dissonance increases with: • The importance of the subject to us. • How strongly the dissonant thoughts conflict. • Our inability to rationalize and explain away the conflict.

6. Dissonance is often strong when we believe something about ourselves and then do something against that belief. If I believe I am good but do something bad, then the discomfort I feel as a result is cognitive dissonance. • Cognitive dissonance is a very powerful motivator which will often lead us to change one or other of the conflicting belief or action. The discomfort often feels like a tension between the two opposing thoughts. To release the tension we can take one of three actions: • Change our behavior. • Justify our behavior by changing the conflicting cognition. • Justify our behavior by adding new cognitions. • “Cognition”: psychological result of perception and learning and reasoning

7. Dissonance is most powerful when it is about our self-image. Feelings of foolishness, immorality and so on. • If an action has been completed and cannot be undone, then the after-the-fact dissonance compels us to change our beliefs. • Cognitive dissonance appears in virtually all evaluations and decisions and is the central mechanism by which we experience new differences in the world. When we see other people behave differently to our images of them, when we hold any conflicting thoughts, we experience dissonance.

8. So what? • Using it • Cognitive dissonance is central to many forms of persuasion to change beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors. The tension can be injected suddenly or allowed to build up over time. People can be moved in many small jumps or one large one. • Defending • When you start feeling uncomfortable, stop and see if you can find the inner conflict. Then notice how that came about. If it was somebody else who put that conflict there, you can decide not to play any more with them

9. Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory • Description • We have basic needs (hygiene needs) which, when not met, cause us to be dissatisfied. Meeting these needs does not make us satisfied -- it merely prevents us from becoming dissatisfied. These are also called these maintenance needs • . • There is a separate set of needs which, when resolved, do make us satisfied. These are called motivators. • This theory is also calledHerzberg's two-factor theory.

10. Research • Herzberg asked people about times when they had felt good about their work. He discovered that the key determinants of job satisfaction were Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility and Advancement. • He also found that key dissatisfiers were Company policy and administration, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal relationships and Working conditions. • What struck him the most was that these were separate groups with separate evaluation, and not a part of the same continuum. Thus if the company resolved the dissatisfiers, they would not create satisfaction.

11. So what? • Using it • Let’s discuss this. Examples.

12. ERG TheoryClayton Alderfer • Description • Clayton Alderfer extended and simplified Maslow's Hierarchy into a shorter set of three needs: Existence, Relatedness and Growth (hence 'ERG'). Unlike Maslow, he did not see these as being a hierarchy, but being more of a continuum.

13. Existence At the lowest level is the need to stay alive and safe, now and in the foreseeable future. When we have satisfied existence needs, we feel safe and physically comfortable. This includes Maslow's Physiological and Safety needs. • Relatedness • At the next level, once we are safe and secure, we consider our social needs. We are now interested in relationships with other people and what they think of us. When we are related, we feel a sense of identity and position within our immediate society. This encompasses Maslow's Love/belonging and Esteem needs. • Growth • At the highest level, we seek to grow, be creative for ourselves and for our environment. When we are successfully growing, we feel a sense of wholeness, achievement and fulfillment. This covers Maslow's Self-actualization and Transcendence.

14. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory • Description • We create expectations about future events. If things seem reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this future come true.  • Motivation is thus a combination of: • Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?) • Instrumentality:  The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?)  • Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My capability?) • Of course you can have an unpleasant outcome, in which case the motivation is now one of avoidance.

15. Intrinsic Motivation • Description • Intrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by internal factors, as opposed to the external drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation drives me to do things just for the fun of it, or because I believe it is a good or right thing to do. • There is a paradox of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is far stronger a motivator than extrinsic motivation, yet external motivation can easily act to displace intrinsic motivation.

16. So what? • Using it • If you can get someone to believe in an idea or align their values with what you want, then you have set very powerful motivation in place. Seek to make them feel good about what you want. • Also minimize extrinsic motivation. So, for example, pay them fairly, then do everything to keep money out of the equation of why they come to work.

17. Career AnchorsEdgar Schein • Security and stability • Autonomy and independence • Creativity and entrepreneurship • Technical/functional competence • Managerial competence • Other anchors: Schein identifies the above five anchors as the primary ones, he also notes that there may be other anchors, including: • Variety and change • Power and influence • Helping others

18. So what? • If you can identify those anchors which affect you most, then this can help you to understand and make sense of your career so far. It can also help you choose future paths that play to these needs. • What are the leadership implications of these anchors?