Grammar Notes

1. Grammar Notes Get out a sheet of paper to take notes. You will want to take notes because you have Study Island assignments.

2. Modifiers • Squinting modifier: does not directly modify the word that it should, and this can confuse the reader. • Example: When I went to the mall, I only looked at the shoes. Because of the word only, this sentence can be read three different ways: 1. You only looked at the shoes and did not buy any. 2. You only looked at the shoes and nothing else. 3. You were the only one who looked at shoes. You have to move the word only to clear it up. When I went to the mall, I looked only at shoes. • Example: People who blow-dry their hair often suffer from damaged hair. • People often blow-dry their hair. • People often suffer from damaged hair. People who blow-dry their hair suffer often from damaged hair.

3. Misplaced Modifier: make sure the term and the modifier are close together or you will create a misplaced modifier. • Example: Missing from the house the night before, my brother found the keys under the sofa cushion. The speaker’s brother wasn’t missing from the house the night before. The keys were. Missing from the house the night before, the keys were under the sofa cushion when my brother found them.

4. Dangling Modifier: fails to modify anything in the sentence. • Example: After reading the book, the movie seems subpar. The sentence seems correct, but the movie didn’t read the book. After reading the book, I think the movie seems subpar.

5. Comparatives and Superlatives To compare and contrast persons or things, we use the comparative and superlative forms of an adjective or adverb. We use the comparative form to show the difference between two things. For example, motorcycles are more dangerous than cars. We use the superlative form when referring to three or more things to show which one is the best degree of something. For example, motorcycles are the most dangerous vehicles on the road.

6. Comparatives • One Syllable Adjectives: • Adjectives with one syllable use –er endings to form the comparative. Double the final consonant if it follows a vowel. • Examples: cold becomes colder, thin becomes thinner • It was colder in the movie theater than it was outside. • The new monitor is thinner than the old one. • Two- or More Syllable Adjectives • Adjectives with two or more syllables use more placed before the adjective to form the comparative. • Examples: corrupt becomes more corrupt, defective becomes more defective • Broderick was a more corrupt politician than Sean was. • The special DVD was more defective than the regular one.

7. Two-Syllable Adjectives Ending in –y • Adjectives with two syllables ending in –y drop the –y from the ending and add –ier to form the comparative. • Examples: busy becomes busier, hairy becomes hairier • City traffic is busier than the country. • The big dog was hairier than the little dog.

8. Superlatives • One-Syllable Adjectives • Adjectives with one syllable use –est endings to form the superlative. Double the final consonant if it follows a vowel. • Examples: cold becomes coldest, thin becomes thinnest • February was the coldest month last year. • The new sandwich cookie has the thinnest wafers on the market. • Two- or More Syllable Adjectives • Adjectives with two or more syllables use most placed before the adjective to form the superlative. • Examples: corrupt becomes most corrupt, defective becomes most defective • Huey was the most corrupt politician of them all. • The ultimate collector’s edition DVD was the most defective release.

9. Two-Syllable Adjectives Ending in –y • Adjectives with two syllables ending in –y drop the –y from the ending and add –iest to form the superlative. • Examples: busy becomes busiest, hairy becomes hairiest • Downtown traffic was busiest overall. • Milwaukee held a contest to see who had the hairiest back.

10. Exceptions • There are some exceptions to these rules. Some adjectives do not follow the regular rules for forming comparatives and superlatives. Two of the most important exceptions are good and bad. • Another important exception is the word fun. Its comparative form is more fun, while its superlative form is most fun.

11. Negatives • To create negative comparatives and superlatives, use less placed before the adjective to form the comparative and least placed before the adjective to form the superlative.

12. Active and Passive Voice When writing sentences, you can use active voice or passive voice. In most writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Overuse of passive voice can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally (though not always) clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

13. Active Voice In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts. • Barry hit a home run. • Tom and Jerry will attend the concert. • Scientists have conducted experiments on the effects of aging.

14. Passive Voice • In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a “by the…” phrase or may be omitted. • The home run was hit by Barry. • The concert will be attended by Tom and Jerry. • Experiments have been conducted to test the effects of aging.

15. Subject-Verb Agreement Subjects and verbs MUST agree with one another in number. In the present tense, a singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb.

16. Singular Verbs end in –s or -es Unlike nouns, the plural form of a verb is not made by adding an –s or –es to the ending. It’s actually the opposite. For present-tense verbs, adding the –s to the end makes it singular. If the verb is plural, there is no –s ending used.

17. Compound Subjects Joined by “and” take a plural verb A subject that is made up of two or more nouns is a compound subject. When the parts are connected by and, the subject is plural, so it takes a plural verb. Selena, Helena, andMark ran the marathon. The truckand the car have low mileage.

18. Subjects with singular nouns joined by orornor take a singular verb. Either the sour milkor the moldy cheesecauses the fridge to stink. Neither the black dressnor the pink gownis fashionable enough.

19. Subjects with a singular noun and a plural noun joined by orornor take the verb that agrees with the closer noun. Jalapenosor extra cheesemakes pepperoni pizza even better. Neither the supervisornor his workerswant to work overtime.

20. Subjects are not in modifying phrases. When the subject and the verb are separated by other words or phrases, make sure the verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun within the phrase. The paintingsat the museum are strange. Your baby-blue tuxedowith all the ruffles is tacky.

21. Don’t let those phrases fool you! Phrases using with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change whether a subject is singular or plural. If the subject is singular, the verb should be as well. Jane, as well as her sisters, enjoys punk music. The cranberries, in addition to the broth, go in the stuffing.

22. Nouns with a plural form but with a singular meaning take singular verbs. Nouns such as United States, civics, mathematics, measles, and news take singular verbs. Mumps is a contagious disease that can be avoided with vaccination. Physics sounds like a hard subject.

23. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, jeans, and shears take plural verbs. These nouns may appear to have a singular meaning, but each of these things is made up of two parts. The shears are in the barber’s hand. The tongs have barbeque sauce all over them.

24. Collective nouns usually take singular verbs. A collective noun has a singular form even though it refers to a group of individuals or things. Examples include army, audience, crowd, group, team, committee, class, and family. These nouns take a singular verb when the group acts as one unit. The audience enjoys the long-awaited movie. The crowd goes wild during a double play. The town supports Mayor Bright. However, a plural verb is used when people or things within a group act separately. The broken-up band have solo careers now. The family disagree about where to go on summer vacation.

25. If the subject follows the verb, the subject and verb should still agree. When the normal subject-verb order is inverted in a sentence, the verb still agrees with the subject. For example, in sentences beginning with there or here, the subject follows the verb. Since neither there nor here is ever the subject of a sentence, the verb agrees with the noun that follows the verb. There are many chores to do. Here is the match to your other sock.

26. With words that indicate portions, look to the object of the preposition. With words that indicate portions – percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so on – look at the object of the preposition (the noun following the of phrase) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb. Half of the car was covered in mud. One-third of the sodas were peach flavored.