Morphology and Lexicology

Morphology and Lexicology Word Formation Ⅱ 영어영문학과 임대동

LIST 4.1 Affixation 4.1.1 Prefixation 4.1.2 Suffixation 4.2 Compounding 4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 4.2.2 Formation of Compounds 4.3 Conversion 4.4 Blending

4.1 Affixation 접사

4.1Affixation Defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Affixation=Derivation According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses: Prefixation and suffixation 4.1.1Prefixation Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes modify word’s meaning. Prefixes can be classify into nine groups.

4.1.1Prefixation ①Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in-(il-, ir-, im-), non-, un- EX)amoral(nonmoral), disroyal(not royal), injustice(without justice), illegal(not legal), irresistible(not to be resisted), immature(not mature), non-smoker(not a smoker), unwilling(not willing). ②Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un- EX)decentralize(give greater powers for self-government), disallow(refuse to allow), unwrap(open) ③ Pejorative(경멸적인)prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo- EX) maltreat(treat badly), mistrust(not to trust), pseudo-friend(false friend)

4.1.1Prefixation ④ prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under- EX)extra-strong(very strong), microcomputer(very small computer), overweight(weighing more than normal), underdeveloped(less developed) ⑤ Prefixes of orientation(지향) and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- EX)anti-government, contraflow(the arrangement for the traffic to go on both directions on one side of the road), pro-student(on the side of the student) ⑥ Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans- EX) extraordinary, forehead, inter-city(between cities), intra-party(within the party), telecommunication(communication by telephone, radio, etc)

4.1.1Prefixation ⑦ Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re- EX) ex-professor(former professor), foretell(tell before happening), post-election(after election), pre-prepared(prepared beforehand), reconsider(consider again) ⑧ Number prefixes: bi-, multi-,(poly-), semi-(hemi-) tri-, uni-(mono-) EX) bilingual(concerning two languages), multi-purpose(more than on purpose), semi-naked(half naked) ⑨Miscellaneous(여러 가지의) prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan, vice- EX) autobiography, neo-Nazi(new Nazi), pan-European(the whole of Europe), vice-chairman

4.1.2Suffixation The formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. We can group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc. 1.Noun suffixes 1)Denominal nouns a. Concrete(사실적인) The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns(구상명사): -eer, -er, -ess, -let EX) engineer, hostess, booklet, ganster

4.1.2Suffixation b. Abstract(추상적인) The following suffixes come at the end of noun stems to form abstract nouns(추상명사): -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ing, -ism, -ship EX) wastage, officialdom(officials as a group), slavery, adulthood, terrorism, friendship 2)Deverbalnouns(동사에서 유래된 명사) The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er(-or) EX) assistant, employee, respondent(person who responds)

4.1.2Suffixation b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns. Denoting action, result, process, state, etc. : -age, -al, -ance, -ation, -ence, -ing, -ment EX) carriage, survival, attendance, protection, statement 3)De-adjective nouns -ity, -ness EX) popularity, happiness 4)Noun and adjective suffixes A small number of suffixes, when added to stems related to human beings or nationality names, form words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives: -ese, -an, -ist EX) Chinese, Australian, socialist

4.1.2Suffixation 2. Adjective suffixes 1)Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, less, -like, -ly, -y EX) simple-minded, successful, childish, dreamlike, priceless 2)Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative) EX) arguable, active 3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward, -wise EX) naturally, clockwise(in the direction in which the hands of the clock move) 4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -( i )fy, -ize(-ise) EX) darken, beautify, modernize

4.2 Compounding 합성

4.2 Compounding The formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Compounding=Composition ‘Lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word’ 4.2.1Characteristics of Compounds Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three as-peets. 1. Phonetic features(음성학적 특징) In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.

4.2.1Characteristics of Compounds EX)

4.2.1Characteristics of Compounds 2. Semantic features(의미적인 특징) Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. EX) a green hand: ‘inexperienced person’ , not a hand that is green in color Red meat: ‘beef’ or ‘lamb’, rather than any meat that is red in color 3. Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence. EX) Bad-mouth(verb) – ‘he bad-mouthed me”

4.2.2Formation of Compounds Compounding can take place within any of the word classes. EX) Prepositions-Without, throughout Conjunctions-however, moreover Pronouns-oneself, somebody But the most productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.

4.2.2Formation of Compounds 1. Noun compounds

4.2.2Formation of Compounds 2. Adjective compounds

4.2.2Formation of Compounds 3. Verb compounds Verb compounds are not as common as the other two classes. The limited number of verbs are created either through conversion or backformation As shown by these examples, back-formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes: -er, -ing, -ion, etc.

4.3 Conversion 변환

4.3 Conversion The formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech. EX) for word ‘round’ [A] He was knocked out in the first round. [B] Round the number off to the nearest tenth. [C] The neighbours gathered round our barbecue. [D] The moon was bright and round. [F] People came from all the country round. In each sentence round is used as a different part of speech: noun, verb, preposition, adjective, and adverb.

4.3 Conversion 1. Conversion to noun 1)Verb to noun Almost all monomorphemic(단일형태소로 이루어진) verbs can be used as nouns. EX) Desire, love, swim, buy, paper, divide, drive, and so much more And also many simple nouns converted from verbs can be used with have, take, make, give, etc. EX) have a look(smoke, swim, try, wash), take a walk(ride, glance, rest, shower), give a cry(grant, start, laugh), make a move(guess, offer)

4.3 Conversion 2)Adjective to noun It is not unusual to have nouns converted from adjectives. Some are completely converted(Full conversion), others are only partially converted.(partial conversion) (1)Words fully converted (Full conversion) A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. EX) white, native, finals, liberal

4.3 Conversion (2)Word partially converted(Partial conversion) Nouns partially converted from adjectives do no possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. EX) the poor, the rich, the young, the wounded, the poorer Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind EX) the young=young people, the wounded=wounded soldiers. But such nouns can refer to a single person as well.

4.3 Conversion 3) Miscellaneous conversion This covers nouns converted from conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions, etc. EX) with, without, also-ran, never-was, downs, must, isms

4.3 Conversion 2.Conversion to verbs As it often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. 1)Noun to verb Verbs converted from nouns are semantically related to the original nouns in a variety of ways. EX)bottle, butter, feather, finger, window and many more.

4.3 Conversion 2)Adjective to verb Conversion of adjectives into verbs is not as productive as that of nouns. The verbs thus converted are semantically simple. EX) [1] He walked carefully so as not to wet his shoes. wet=used as a transitive verb as ‘He walked carefully so as not to make his shoes wet.’ [2] The photograph yellowed with age yellow=an intransitive use meaning ‘become yellow ’ ‘the photograph became yellow with age’

4.3 Conversion 3)Miscellaneous conversion In some cases, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution. The most common changes are: (1)Voiceless to voiced consonant

4.3 Conversion (2) Initial to end stress This stress shift occurs usually in two syllable words. Used as a noun=the stress fall on the first syllable EX) ‘Conduct(n) , ‘permit(n) ② Used as a verb=the stress moves onto the second syllable EX) Con’duct(v), per’mit(v)

4.4 Blending 합성

4.4 Blending The formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Blending=Blends=Portmanteau EX) Flush= fl(flash)+ush(blush) Smog= sm(smoke)+og(fog) We can blends fall into four major groups.

4.4 Blending 1. Head + tail 2. Head + head

4.4 Blending 3. Head + word 4. Word + tail

4.4 Blending Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines. Though many of them have already achieved currency in English, blends are still considered by serious-minded people as a slang. Therefore it will be better for you to not use these words too often, especially in formal writing.

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Morphology and Lexicology