Learning Theories

1. LearningTheories An overviewwhich raises more questionsthanprovidesanswers

2. Learningtheories must beunderstood in context • Politics Science • & Power Epistemology • Schooling • teaching Learning

3. Main areas of the understanding of learning(Illeris 2009) Biology Philosophy Psychology Social sciences Externalconditions Internalconditions Learning Application

4. 3 mainconcepts of learning Cognition Behaviour Activity (practice)

5. LearningTheoriestimeline(overlapping) • Behaviorists_____________________________ • Pavlov(1849 - 1936) • Watson ( 1878 – 1958) • Thorndike(1874 – 1949) • Skinner ( 1904 – 1990) • Bandura( 1925 -) • Constructivists_____________________________________________________ • Piaget (1896-1980), Socio-cultural________________________________ • Dewey (1859 – 1952) • Vygotsky (1896-1934) Bruner ( 1915 -) (Cognitive Load TheorySweller1988) !! CulturalHistoricalActivityTheory_______ Vygotsky (1978 English reintroduction) Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (1978 Berkley) Michael Cole (? Ph.d: 1962) Jean Lave (? Ph.d :1968 -) YrjeEngeström

6. Anotherway of mappingtheories • OutsidecontrolIndividualinitiative • Behaviorismconstructivism • Directinstruction Problem basedlearning • Testing Projects • Performance/outcomeDiversity/Culture • basededucation CHAT

7. Behaviorism definition • Behaviorism is a theory of learningfocusingonobservablebehaviorand discounting mental activity.Learning is definedsimply as the acquisition of new behavior. • Behaviorists callthismethod of learning”conditioning”

8. Behaviorism • The ideas of behaviorism have theirroots in the latenineteenth and earlytwentiethcentury. • It waspromoted by psychologistswhowanted to break free of philosophy and establishpsychology as a real science whichinvolveddetailedobjective observation and scientificmeasurement • Anyconsideration of mental proceswhich is by definition unobservablefelloutsidetheirinterest.

9. Behaviorism • Early behaviorists usedanimals for experimentswithstimulus- response. • The stimulus-responsecanalsobeseen in humans. In situations whereimmediateresponse is required, practice situations arerepeatedendlesslyuntil the soldier, firefighter orairline pilot wilmakecorrectresonses in a given situation. • Responsivepracticecanbeexplained in terms of reinforcement of particular neural pathways in the brain. • Main objection to behaviorism in general educationconcernsWho has the right to conditionwhom for whatpurpose !

10. Pavlov & classicalconditioning • Pavlov was a Russian physiologist. • The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. • During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated when they ate, even saw food. In his initial experiment he sounded a bell at the time when food was presented to the dogs. The sound of the bell became for the dogs an indication that food was about to be presented and eventually the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell irrespective of the presence of food. The dogs had been conditioned to respond to the sound of the bell producing saliva. Their behavior had been successfully modified. • The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the conditioned reflex The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking.

11. Skinner & operantconditioning • The second type of conditioning is operantconditioning, the most important type of behaviorist learning. It is more flexible in its nature and potentially more powerful. • It involvesreinforcing a behavior byrewardingit. • Skinner is the most famouspsychologist in the field of operantconditioning. • Skinner maintainedthatrewards and punishmentscontrol the majority of human behaviors, and that the principles of operantconditioningcanexplain all human learning.

12. Skinner´spolitical visions • Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control – a technology of human behavior – could help problems unsolved • One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself. Skinner supported the use of positive reinforcement a means of coercion, citing Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Emile: or On Education as an example of freedom literature that "did not fear the power of positive reinforcement". Skinner's book, Walden Two, presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society, which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems( Brave New World)

13. Bandura & Social learningtheory • Bandura is a psychologist. He was professor at Stanford University. • Bandura was influential in the transition between behaviorism and social learning theory. • Social Learning Theory • The initial phase of Bandura's research analyzed the foundations of human learning and the propensity of children and adults to model their own behavior on that observed in others. • During a period dominated by behaviorism, Bandura believed the sole behavioral modifiers of reward and punishment in classical operant conditioning were inadequate as a framework, and that many human behaviors were learnt from other humans.(cf Lave) In 1986, Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive Theory.

14. Thorndike • American psychologist worked at Teachers College at Columbia University, studying human learning, education, and mental testing. • Thorndike put his testing expertiseto work for the United States Army during World War 1. • Among Thorndike's most notable contributions involved his research on how cats learned to escape from puzzle boxes and his related formulation of the law of effect. The law of effect states that responses that are closely followed by satisfying consequences become associated with the situation, and are more likely to recur when the situation is subsequently encountered. If the responses are followed by aversive consequences, associations to the situation become weaker.Thorndike interpreted the findings in terms of associations. • A similar, though radically reworked idea was taken up by B.F. Skinner in his formulation of operant conditioning The associative analysis went on to figure largely in behavioral work through mid-century, and is now evident in some modern work in behavior. • Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning: • The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment. • The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence. • The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.

15. Constructivismcomes under the broadheading of Cognitive Science • Constructivism is not a brand new idea! • The foundation for the currentinterest in constructivismcanbetraced to the work of (amongothers) • Dewey, J.( 1929): My pedagogicalCreed . Washington, DC: Progressive Education Association. • Piaget, J.(1952): The origins of Intelligence in Children.New York: International UniversitiesPress • Bruner, J.(1966): Toward a Theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress. • Vygotsky, L.S.(1978): Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge. MA: Harvard UniversityPress.

16. Constructivism • Constructivism is a theory of knowledge (epistemology that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. During infancy, it is an interaction between their experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Piaget called these systems of knowledge schemata. • Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, although • Piaget's theory of constructivist and experiental learning has had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and is an underlying theme of many education reform movements e.glearner-centred approach ( often promoted by the World Bank)

17. The fundamental processes of learning( in a constructivistlearningperspective) • ContentIncentive acquisition Individual Environment

18. The three dimensions of learningall learningwillinvolvethesethree dimensions • MMe Content: Knowledge Understanding Skills Incentive: Motivation Emotion Volition Balance and sensitivity Meaning and ability andand Interaction: Action Communication Cooperation INTEGRATION

19. Example from School Life • During a chemistrylesson a teacher is explaining a chemicalprocess. The students aresupposed to listen and learn; • but maybe: • The interactiondoes not functionbecause the teacher´sexplanation is not goodenough. • The student´sincentiveis inadequate due to lack of mental and bodily balance( e.g. inadequatenutrition, emotionaldisturbance) • The student´s prior knowledge is inadequate

20. Piaget Constructivism • Piaget was born in 1896 in Switzerland. • Piaget developed an interest in biology and the natural world. He was educated at the University of Neuchâtel, and studied briefly at the University of Zürich. There he published two philosophical papers. • His interest in pscychoanalysisat the time a burgeoning strain of psychology, can also be dated to this period. • Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, France after his graduation and he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles Street School for Boys. The school was run by Alfred Binet (intelligence test) and Piaget assisted in the marking of Binet's intelligence tests and he noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions. • Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the children's answers being wrong, but that young children consistently made types of mistakes that older children and adults did not. This led him to the theory that young children's cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. • Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of cognitive developmental stages in which individuals exhibit certain common patterns of cognition in each period of development. Piaget had three children, whom Piaget studied from infancy. • In 1964, Piaget was invited to serve as chief consultant at two conferences at Cornell University and University of California The conferences addressed the relationship of cognitive studies and curriculum development and strived to conceive implications of recent investigations of children's cognitive development for curricula

21. Piaget is inspired by and tries to integrate: • Dewey´spragmatism • Freud´spsychoanalysis • Durkheim´ssocial life • Hall + Binet´sbiologicalconception of the child

22. Piaget: Schemas and stages • The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as: • Sensormotorstage from birth to age 2. Children experience the world through movement and senses (use five senses to explore the world). During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others' viewpoints. , divided into six substages • Preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7 (Acquisition of motor skills). Egocentrism begins strongly and then weakens. Children cannot conserve or use logical thinking. • Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 12 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking). Children can now conserve and think logically but only with practical aids. They are no longer egocentric. Formal operational stage from age 12 onwards (development of abstract reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind.

23. A constructivist model of learning • Assumesthatthe learnerhim/herselfconstrueshis/her learningstructures . • Thesestructuresexist in the brain as dispositions described by a psychologicalmetaphor as mental schemes.(Piaget) • The concept of schemeis used to classifywhatwesubjectivelyconnect and recall in relation to a particulartopic. • Mental patternsis similarlyused as a concept in relation to incentive and interaction dimensions. • It is noarchive, but traces of circuitsbetween billions of neurons that have beenactiveearlier.In brain research calledengrams.

24. Four types of learning • Cumulative( ormechanical) learning.( isolated formation – not part of anythingelse – nopersonalmeaning).When a scheme is established. Most important in earlychildhood. • Assimilativelearning.Mostcommon type of learning. Learning by addition. New element is linked to a schemethat is alreadyestablished. • Accomodative (or transcendent) learning. Breaks down and transforms (parts of) an existingscheme.(difficultprocess) Expansive (transformative, significant) learning. personality changes, characterised by a restructuring of a cluster of schemes and patternes ( crisislike situation)

25. From individualconstructivism to social constructivism • Piaget'stheory, however vital in understandingchildpsychology, did not go withoutscrutiny. A mainfigurewhoseideascontradictedPiaget'sideaswas the RussianpsychologistLev Vygotsky. Vygotskystressed the importance of a child'sculturalbackground as an effect to the stages of development. Becausedifferentcultures stress different social interactions, thischallengedPiaget'stheorythat the hierarchy of learningdevelopment had to develop in succession. Vygotskyintroduced the term Zone of proximaldevelopmentas an overall task a childwould have to developthatwouldbetoodifficult to developalone.

26. Vygotsky • Vygotskywas a student of literature, philosophy and estetics(humanities & social sciences) whoplungedintopscychology. • BornintoJewishfamily in Russia. Vygotskywasespeciallyinterested in the philosophy of history. He alsolooked for an alternative to Cartesiandualism. • He got a position at a localteachers college and becaseinterested in the physicallyhandicappedbeforehemoved to Moscow and got a ph.d. at the MoscowInstitute of Psychology.

27. Vygotsky • Vygotsky´sthesiswason the psychology of art The titlerevealsthat to Vygotskypsychologywas a method of uncovering the origins of higher forms of human consciousness and emotionalliferatherthanelementarybehavioralacts. • 1924 Vygotskydelivered a vehementattackon the reflexologists.: Scientificppsychologycannotignore the facts of consciousnessthuschallengingPavlovians

28. Vygotsky´sprogramme • Bedevelopmental. Vygotskyperceiveddevelopment as a dynamicprocess. • Solve the problem of interrelationbetweenhigher mental functions and lowerelementaryfunctions • Takesociallymeaningfulactivity as an explanatoryprinciple. • Language and speech occupy a specialplace.(thought and speech have differentroots) • Wanted to find a ”thirdway” betweenscientific and philosophicalpsychology.

29. Scientific and spontaneousconcepts. • Scientificconceptsoriginate in the highlystructured and specializedactivity of classroominstruction and imposeon the chilelogicallydefinedconcepts. • Spontaneousconceptsemerge from the child´sownreflectionsoneverydayexperience. • Scientificconceptsarenot assimilatedbut undergosubstantialdevelopmentdependingon the existinglevel of a child´sability to comprehendconcepts. Thislevel of comprehension is connectedwith the development of spontaneousconcepts. • Spontaneousconcepts in workingtheirwayupwardstowardgreaterabstractness clear a path for scientificconceptson the downwarddevelopmenttowardgreaterconcreteness.

30. Major points in learning fromSocial constructivism & Vygotsky • Emphasis is oninteractionbetween the learner and others. • Languagehas a highpriority • Dialoguewith peersor more knowledgeableothers • The Zone of proximaldevelopment • Recent educationaltool: Collaborativelearning

31. Social and IndividualConstructivismVygotskyvs Piaget (Pritchard 2009) • Bothwereconstructivists. Both Piaget and Vygotskybelievedthatindividualsactivelyconstructtheirownknowledge and underrstanding. • Vygotskystressed the importance of the social interaction in which an individualparticipates. Piaget stressed the inner motivation to balance new information withexistingknowledge and understanding.

32. Social and IndividualConstructivism Vygotsky Piaget Cognitiveconstructivism Childrenlearnthroughbeingactive Childrenoperate as ”lonescientists” If a child is shownhow to do somethingratherthanbeingencouraged to discover for himself, understandingmightbeinhibited • Social constructivism • Childrenlearnthroughbeingactive • Learning is a sociallymediatedactivity • Emphasison the role of the teacheror more knowledgeableother as a scaffolder

33. Social and IndividualConstructivism Vygotsky Piaget The teacher is the provider of artefactsneeded for the child to workwith and learn from Cognitivegrowth has a biological, age relateddevelopmental basis • The teacher is a mentorwhoprovides the challengesthat the childneeds for achieving more • Development is fostered by collaboration( in the zone of proximaldevelopment and not strictly age related.

34. Social and IndividualConstructivism Vygotsky Piaget Childrenareunable to extendtheircognitivecapabilitiesbeyondtheir stage of development. There is no point in teaching a conceptbeyondcurrent stages of development. • Development is an internalisation of social experience. Childrencanbetaughtconceptsthatare just beyondtheirlevel of developmentwithappropriate support. • What the childcan do with an adulttoday, theycan do alonetomorrow.

35. Constructivism – epistemologyorlearningtheory ? • Research support for constructivist teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other research contradicting those results. • ( Tobias, S., Duffy, T.M.(eds)(2009): Constructivist Instruction. Success or Failure? New York: Routledge)

36. Epistemology and Teaching • So eventhoughconstructivism is accepted at the epistemologicallevel it is hotlydebatedto whatextentlearning and teachingcanbebasedonthatnotion.

37. Constructivismvs.Directinstruction • Students who had practice with feedback had better performance and more positive attitudes than those students who did not have opportunities for practice. • Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark suggest that novices be taught with direct methods of instruction like worked examples.Sweller (2006) discusses the worked-example effect as a alternative to problem-solving for novices. However practice with feedback is condoned and even encouraged by Sweller and his associated because these types of learning are important for those who already acquired a schema (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003) therefore there is no conflict between Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark's views, and those of Klein and Sullivan. Each agrees that the learner be given practice with feedback. Kirschner et al. (2006) propose instruction should, however, begin with worked examples. • Studying examples as an alternative to active learning strategies

38. Science and Politics-Evidence • In the past few years outcome-based education/performance-based education policy has begun to limit instructors to only using those techniques that have been shown to be effective. In the United States for instance, the No Child Left Behind requires those developing instruction to show evidence of its "effectiveness."