Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval of Information

1. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 9 Memory James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers

2. Which is a penny

3. Memory:Persistence of learning over time using 3 pillars of memory: • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval of info • Flashbulb Memory: Where were you when…? • a clear memory of an intense emotional moment or event • Pictures, others’ retelling, etc., can affect so “remember” things we didn’t really experience • Memory as Information Processing • How it is similar to a computer: • write to file (encoding) • save to disk (storage) • read from disk (retrieve)

4. 1 way it is NOT similar: We___ process…computers ___ process Encoding: placing info into memory systems • i.e., extracting meaning (comprehend it so can process…) EX: New word suddenly appears everywhere? Storage • retention of encoded info over time… • putting it into neural networks…making connections, etc. Retrieval: accessing the info: • process of getting info out of memory

5. Memory: 4 different types: Sensory Memory • immediate, 1st recording of sensory info in memory systems • In bits, quick…& most NOT stored • EX: ppl walking down the hallway…do you see all of them? Hear all? Or just “flashes”? What do you keep (retain)? Short-Term Memory (STM) • activated memory that holds a few items briefly • look up a phone #, then quickly dial b4 the info is forgotten

6. Memory: 4 types continued… • Working Memory • Newer term…extension of STM • processing of briefly stored info: What’s on your “desktop” at a given moment to work w/ • What about working on a paper/essay? • Longer time on “desk-top” : beginning to make connections to enable storage • Long-Term Memory (LTM) • the relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system

7. Attention to important or novel information Sensory input Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Encoding Retrieving A Simplified Memory Model:Where wouldworking memoryfit in here?

8. Encoding Effortful Automatic Encoding: Getting Info In: 2 ways1. Effortful: rehearsing to try to encode… EX’s? 2. Automatic: just sorta’ happens that we recall EX’s? EBBINGHAUS: study of memory

9. Encoding • Automatic Processing • unconsciousencoding of incidental info  Space  Frequency  Time  Daily events • well-learned info: hard to shut off • word meanings…someone calls you a name? • Using effortful, we can change it into automatic processing • Ex: reading backwards: do it enough, begins to be automatic; typing

10. Effortful(putting effort into it) Processing • requires attention & conscious effort… …& often requires… •  Rehearsal • conscious repetition of information • to maintain it in consciousness • to encode it for storage Over-learning:Even after have learned it, still practice & rehearse = v. good retention…know it backwards & forwards…

11. Ebbinghaus (348): used nonsense syllables • TUV ZOF GEK WAV • more times practiced Day 1, the less repetitions to relearn on Day 2…i.e., amt. remembered depends on amt. of time spent learning • Found nonsense syllables less effective in remembering than meaningful infoWHY?connections in networks • Created “forgetting curve” (retention curve)  Spacing Effect:distributed practice gives better long- term retention than massed • i.e., shorter but more frequent sessions = better learning than long, cramming sessions! *This is a VERY important piece of info 4 U !!!!

12. Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 64 Number of repetitions of list on day 1 Encoding: Ebbinghaus’sretention curve

13. 90 Percentage of words recalled 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list Encoding: Serial Position Effect(Place in a series…) How could you use this info? Serial Position Effect: Tendency to recall best the last items & the first items in a list Those in the middle tend to blend (or blur) together…ALSO.. *Availability *Frequency

14. What We Encode: 3 types: 1. Semantic Encoding • encoding of meaning • including meaning of words + how it relates to other things • Tends to create deeper levels of processing 2. Acoustic Encoding • encoding ofsound, especially sound of words • EX: Rhymes easily remembered (“If the glove don’t fit…!”) 3. Visual Encoding • encoding of picture images • Creates more shallow processing

15. Encoding: See p. 350: Sample ?’s:Visual often = shallow processingBut semantic tends to be deeper processing

16. Imagery: “A picture is worth…” • Mental pictures: seeing w/ words • Can be powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding • “wreck” vs. “crash”? Creating visual images in your head, not w/ real pics • Mnemonics:“stupid memory tricks…” • Greek, Mnemos (goddess of memory) • memory aids, espec. techniques using vivid imagery & organizational devices • Names of the Great Lakes? Planets? In 10 seconds, memorize the #’s next SL

17. Take 10 seconds to memorize this series of #’s 1812 1492 1941 1776

18. Method of Loci: Chunking: a type of Mnemonic • organizing items into familiar, manageable units • Like horizontal organization • We often do this automatically • Phone #’s or SSN’s: Not 8645551212 but 864-555-12 12 • use of acronyms:word or sentences to remember EX: HOMES: Huron, Ontar., Michig., Erie, Superi. • Colors of the rainbow in order of wavelengths? Planets? Which is easier to remember? 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6 OR 483 792 516

19. Encoding: Chunking • Organized info is more easily recalled 2 better than 1… 4 better than 3, etc.

20. Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic Encoding) Imagery (visual Encoding) Organization Chunks Hierarchies Hierarchies:Categorizing related items • Listed items remembered better in categories -poorer recall if randomly • Even if list is random, ppl still organize info into some logical pattern *Break complex info down into broad concepts & subdivide more into categories & subcategories

21. Storage: Retaining Info • Iconic Memory • momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli…EX? • photographic or pic. image memory lasting few tenths of a second • Echoic Memory • momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

22. Percentage who recalled consonants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Storage:Short-Term Memory • STM: • limited in duration & capacity • “Magical” number: 7 (+/-) 2 (5 or 6 7 8 or 9)

23. Storage: Long-Term Memory • How storage works: • Karl Lashley (1950): cut out part of rats’ brains • rats learn maze • lesion in cortex • test memory • **Synaptic changes • Long-term Potentiation (remember action potentials??) • increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation • Strong emotions =stronger memories • some stress hormones boost learning & retention

24. Long-Term Memory (LTM) • Amnesia--the loss of memory • Explicit Memory (aka “declarative”) • memory of facts & experiences we can consciously know & declare • hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage • Implicit Memory (aka procedural): • retention independent of conscious recollection • EX: a skill…typing

25. Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) W/o conscious recall Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Dispositions- classical & operant conditioning effects Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Skills-motor & cognitive LTM Subsystems (B. p. 359): (Chart = EX of what mnemonic??)

26. Hippocampus LTM Storage: • MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) • Hippocampus= brain area that converts info from STM & WM into LTM…works in conjunction w/ areas of frontal lobe • Hippocampus, just like hemispheres, is lateralized (left & right side w/ differ. functions for each)

27. Various categories of memory

28. Another memory model including the “Central Executive”

29. Retrieval: Getting Information Out (Use EX’s for each!) (R = 3 R’s + a P!) • Recall • measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier EX’s? • Recognition • Measure of memory in which the person has only to ID items previously learned EX’s? • Relearning:Looking at how much time saved when learning material 2nd time EX’s? • Priming:using cues (or clues) to activate, often unconsciously, particular associations in memory… i.e., connections to networks… EX’s?

30. Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Water/ water Land/ land Different contexts for hearing & recall Same contexts for hearing & recall Retrieval Cues (X)

31. Deja Vu (French: already seen) • cues from current situation may subconsciouslytrigger retrieval of earlier similar experience • "I've experienced this before.“ • However, ppl resist believing this answer… b/c = “it’sso real!” • Mood-congruent Memory: We recall experiences consistent w/ our current mood • memory, emotion, & moods become retrieval cues -sad? remember things you felt when sad b4 -angry? recall memories when last angry State-dependent Memory: What’s learned in one state [condition](like high, drunk, or depressed) is remembered more easily later in same situation EX: If practice on field rather than gym, will remember new skill better --SAT at GHS?

32. State Dependent Learning: • After learning to move a mobile by kicking, learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context EX: If we move kid to playpen, less likely to show this activity as quickly.

33. State Dependent Learning…?

34. 7 Sins of memory: Ways memory fails us(365-6): a) 3 of forgetting: • Absent-mindedness: inattention • Transience: unused fades • Blocking: interference…tip-of-the-tongue b) 3 of distortion: We mislead selves or others mislead • Misattribution: confusing the source • Suggestibility: effects of mis-info (false mem.) • Bias: pre-conceived ideas control mem. c) 1 of intrusion: Persistence: unwanted mem.’s are just not “filed” (motivated forgetting)

35. Forgetting: (365) 1. Encoding failure 2. Storage decay 3. Retrieval failure 1. Forgetting as encoding failure: Info doesn’t go to LTM b/c of inattention…or bias…or misattribution, etc. EX: Which is the Penny? 2… Storage decay:Use it or loose it… EX: foreign lang. use? 3… Retrieval failure(368)Can’t retrieveinfo from LTM b/c of blocking, interference, etc. • Motivated Forgetting (370) • ppl unknowingly revise memories b/c it is what you would rather believe (denial?) • Repression: Freud’s term for “defense mechanism” that removes from consciousness upsetting thoughts, feelings, & memories

36. Attention External events Sensory memory Short- term memory Long- term memory Encoding Attention Encoding Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term & working Memory Long-term memory Encoding Retrieval OR Encoding failure leads to forgetting Retrieval failure leads to forgetting

37. % of list retained when relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time in days since learning list Forgetting • Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve over 30 days– • Initially rapid, then levels off with time

38. 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 % of original Vocab. retained Retention drops, then levels off 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in yrs after completion of Spanish course Forgetting • The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

39. Forgetting as Interference (369) • Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other info Can go 1 of 2 ways… 1) Proactive (forward  acting) Interference • disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information…old interrupts ne EX:Knew Judy…meet Julie… …keep calling her Judy 2) Retroactive (backwards  acting) Interference • Learning newinfo interrupts recall of old EX:Knew Judy…meet Julie… but now if you see Judy, you call her Julie

40. Forgetting as Interference 2nd example: Learn French…then Spanish

41. 90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Without interfering events, recall is better Percentage of syllables recalled After sleep After remaining awake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hours elapsed after learning syllables Forgetting: Going for a walk or sleeping can limit retro interference-new info makes old info hard to retrieve • Retroactive Interference

42. Positive transfer: Opposite of interference …b/c old info can often HELP (or facilitate) remembering EX: Latin helps us learn French…or advanced English words ----------------------------------------------------- • Why might advertisers NOT want to advertise during violent TV shows? (b-369)

43. Forgetting • Forgetting can occur at any memory stage • As we process info, we filter, alter, or lose much of it • Meta-cognition:what we know about what we know or can remember…Most ppl.over-estimate ability in this!!

44. Memory Construction • We filter info & fill in missing pieces • Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading info into our memory of an event (wreck/crash?) • Source Amnesia(misattribution): attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, …or even imagined Eyewitness testimony • Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned …..?’s can affect mem. • E-W memory CAN be unreliable • Emotion can affect EX: Priest & Gentleman Bank Robber? “Evil Salsa man?”

45. Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Eyewitness testimony? “…When they hit =14%” “…When they smashed = __?_%”

46. 2 Types of amnesia:A) Retrograde: Forget your past: Who am I? Where am I from?B) Anterograde: Forget the present …can’t form new memories: No STM gets to LTM Damage to what part of limbic system?

47. Memory Construction • Memories of Abuse • Repressed or Constructed? • Child sexual abuse does occur • Some adults do actually forget such episodes • “repressed” = Freud’s term for it…aka “blocked” • False Memory Syndrome • Condition where a person’s identity & relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience • Sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists • Guidelines are now set to try to stop or limit these

48. Memory Construction: Mem. of abuse: RE: the ? of recovered (repressed) memories: • Injustice happens…. • Incest happens • Forgetting happens • Recovered memories are commonplace • Unpleasant memories…false OR real…are upsetting But most ppl. (& psy.) do agree on the following: • Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable …meaning they must be looked at carefully • Memories of things happening b4 age 3 are unreliable

49. 9 Ways to Improve Your Memory • Study repeatedly to boost recall • Make material personally meaningful (relate to things you already know) • Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation & mood • Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation • Minimize interference • Use mnemonic devices • associate w/ “peg” words—something you’ve already stored • make up story about the info…or tell someone about the info • Use chunking & acronyms

50. 7. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material… 8.Take a break! 9. Test your own knowledge • rehearse • determine what you do not yet know And be sure to Use Elaboration: Ways… -Actively question new information -Think about its implications -Relate information to things you already know -Generate your own examples of concepts -Don’t just highlight passage as you read -Focus on the main or big ideas in the text -Organize these ideas hierarchically ? Activity NEXT…. STOP!