Cognitive information processing

1. Cognitive information processing

2. A result of several influences • Especially: • Learning theory • S-R; S-O-R • Computer science/Information processing • Turing • Intelligent machines • Information theory • Shannon/Bell Labs

3. Proposes: • A series of processes are performed on environmental information that then affect the behavior of the organism (person) • Input processes, storage processes, output processes • Mainly in the brain, but not all • The processes are in a relatively invariant order • All people follow the same set of processes of thinking • However, the outcomes can be quite different

4. Four major types of info processing theories • Stage theory • Depth of processing theory • Parallel distributed processing theory • Connectionist models

5. Stage theory • Argues for three major types of memory • Sensory memory • Short-term memory • Long-term memory

6. Levels-of-processing • All information is stored, problem is in retrieval • Retrieval is based on the amount of elaboration used in processing of information • Perception, attention, labeling, meaning

7. Parallel distributed processing theory • Simultaneous processing by several different parts of memory system rather than sequentially

8. Connectionistic theory • Information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections • More connections to a single idea or concept, the more likely it is to be stored and retrieved

9. General principles • Limited capacity available for active processing at any given time • Bottlenecks • Control mechanism—part of the system’s processing capacity must be assigned to a control mechanism • Allocates processing capacity • Prioritizes activities • Coordinates actions

10. Sensory activation • Environmental cues generate changes within specialized organs • Eyes • Ears • Skin • Tongue • Only a portion of environmental phenomena generate sensual changes • Perceptual thresholds • Infrared light • X-rays

11. Transduction of sensual reaction • Sensory organs create patterns of electrical impulses as a response to environmental stimuli • (Transduction) • Qualitatively different patterns are produced for visual, sound, touch (haptic), and language (semantic) memory systems

12. Buffering and filtering • Sensual buffers are thought to exist that retain the electrical impulses for a short period of time • The ‘most important’ content is passed along while the ‘less important’ content is filtered out • Cannot handle the vast amount of information that senses generate • Filtering is based on ‘pattern recognition’

13. Stimuli that pass through filters • Inhibitor modulation • Those patterns, etc. that are neither seen as especially important nor so unimportant that they can be ignored are “dampened” • Allows for monitoring of content without use of extensive processing capacity

14. Working memory • The active portion of memory (including consciousness) where processes that reject, evaluate, interpret • Limited capacity • Allocation of processing capacity is known as “attention” • Intentional v. automatic • “content attributes” v. need recognition

15. Working memory • Must draw upon ‘long-term memory’ to assign meaning to the new patterns of electrical impulses • What does “economic impact” (a pattern of impulses representing a set of characters on a page) mean? • Meaning is actually the set of relationships identified/constructed between existing concepts and the new ones

16. Determinants of attention • Most content is disposed of quickly—recognized as routine and then ignored • Does not get integrated into long-term memory (some controversy here) • “Habituation” of repetitive tasks, experiences leads to ‘monitoring’ • Attention allocated to divergence from the norm, expectations

17. Determinants of attention • Hard-wired to attend to cues that had survival value (those that didn’t left the gene pool) • Movement • Loud noises • Bright colors/contrasts • Unexpected or unusual features

18. Film examples • Apocalypse Now • The Bourne Identity • Master and Commander

19. Determinants of attention • Internally-generated needs draw attention to ‘content’ that relates to those needs • Hunger • Pain • Fear • Sexual desire

21. Determinants of attention • Learned interests and evaluations of importance direct attention to certain ‘content’ • Those with an interest in foreign affairs will allocated attention to news stories about Iraq, etc.

22. Capacity • For a long time, considered “7+/-2 chunks” of information • More recent research has argued that we have greater capacity • Ability to monitor many environmental cues at one time

23. Processing • Info is processed at different levels • From simple recognition thru “elaboration” • Automatic, lizard-brain response to

24. The more we already know in a given domain, the less effort to process new information • The less ‘change’ likely as a result of processing • Experts less likely to change their minds due to inclusion of new info • However, experts more likely to deeply process info in their area of interest

25. Long-term memory • A portion of ‘information’ from working memory is prepared for transfer to long-term (permanent) storage • To do so, it is integrated into structures of meaning (schema) held within long-term memory • The integration gives ‘meaning’ to the new information while reconfiguring the schema that are activated to interpret the new info • Reconfiguration of schema is usually minor

26. Interpretation • Interpretation is the process of comparing new info to that held in LTM • Usually the outcome is largely in line with existing beliefs • “Biased” interpretation • Many scholars see this as ego-defensive • May simply be efficient with regard to the massive flow of information and limited cognitive capacity

27. Retrieval from LTM • Information retrieved from LTM is limited • Would quickly reach overload if we tried to access all potentially relevant info • Would take far too long—can’t spend long periods of time on anything but the most crucial new info/decision-making • Retrieval based on perceived shared or similar meaning/concepts • Memories in LTM organized hierarchically? Schematically? Etc.

28. Influences on retrieval • Frequency and Recency of Activation • Memory traces are strengthened through use, become less strong over time • Vividness • Emotionality • Relationships with other related concepts • One concept is likely to be accessed when another, closely related concept, is accessed

29. Influences on retrieval • Concepts are retrieved according to the set of relationships they have with other concepts • Spreading activation • The structure of relationships varies by individual • Culture influences structure of relations/ topics/concepts held

30. Learning • Content features • Repetition • Attachment with existing beliefs/knowledge • Vividness • Emotionality • Alignment with existing beliefs • Multiple exposure • Existing knowledge (targeting) • Interest

31. Learning/memory • Evidence indicates quite limited ability to recall or even recognize media content experienced recently • Memory for ‘distant’ content exhibits clear biases • Even relatively powerful memories can be ‘false’

32. Persuasion • Reconfiguration of evaluative schema • Persuasive messages tend to exhibit certain features: • Credible sources • Vivid examples rather than statistical trends • Emotionality • Visual logic • Propaganda methods (demonization, attachment to revered symbols, etc.)

33. Decision-making • Internal and external sources of information • Low-effort decision-making the rule • Even for ‘important’ decisions (cars and make-up) • Satisficing the most common behavior • Costs of info search v. expected return • Much more likely to depend on existing knowledge, info than to engage in active information seeking

34. “Mindless” behavior • Much of our behavior is relatively automatic—don’t see the effort necessary to change ingrained behaviors as worth the costs • Much of media use is relatively ‘mindless’

35. Behavior • Behavior is mostly controlled by the outcome of info processing in working memory • Actions taken to meet needs/drives/ motivations • Responses to environmental demands • Goal-directed behavior

36. Behavior effectiveness and adjustment • The environmental change observed after behavioral action acts as new information that goes through the info processing system and is encoded into our schema relating to the topic • Perceived success, failure becomes a guide to new action brought on by perceived needs, etc.