Week 5 Social Learning Perspectives Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives

1. Week 5Social Learning Perspectives Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.Content in this section cited from Lenses on Readingunless otherwise noted (1960s-Present and 1950s-1970s)

2. BALANCING ASSESSMENTS Balancing Assessments involves: Reading Processes and Reading Products Reading Skills and Strategies and Student Use of Understanding Basic Skills and Strategies with Higher-Order Thinking Single-Text Reading with Reading from Multiple Sources Cognitive and Affective Reading Outcomes and Reader Characteristics Formative Assessment with Summative Assessment Assessment That is Done To or For Students with Assessment that is Done With and By Students In-School and Out-Of-School Literacy Practices Demands for Teacher/School Accountability with Professional Development Opportunities to Develop Expertise Benedictine University

3. Benedictine University Social Learning perspectives (1960s-Present) Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.Content in this section directly cited from Lenses on Reading unless otherwise noted Chapter 6 Tracey and Morrow

4. Social Learning Perspectives (1960s-Present) • The social learning perspective incorporates several different theories • All of which emphasize the central role of social interaction in the development of knowledge and learning • When applied to the field of reading • The social learning perspective emphasizes the importance of social influences and social interaction on literacy learning Benedictine University

5. Social Learning Perspectives (1960s-Present) Social learning perspective includes: • Sociolinguistic Theory • Socio-Cultural Theory • Social Constructivism/Socio-Historical Theory • Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory • Critical Literacy Theory Benedictine University

6. SOCIOLINGUISTIC THEORYEDUC 622Tracey and Morrow Ch. 6 Benedictine University

7. Sociolinguistic Theory • The first application of the social perspective to the field of reading emerged in the 1970s with the Sociolinguistic Theory • From this perspective, reading is viewed as both a social and a linguistic process • This theory is rooted in the fields of anthropology, linguistics, and literary analysis • Anthropology suggests that reading and writing can be viewed as cultural events • Linguistics suggests that language differences between social classes are related to differences in all language practices, including reading and writing • It also suggests that the ability to read is related to social function • That individuals learn to read as a means to accomplish personal goals related to basic life functioning • Literary Analysis adds the understanding that during the reading process, meaning is constructed by, and located in, the reader Benedictine University

8. Sociolinguistic Theory • These theorists believe that oral language is the foundation upon which children’s reading and writing achievement is built • As such, oral language knowledge provides children with an intuitive understanding of the structure of language (i.e. syntax) that helps them: • Predict texts and • Read fluently at a later age • Oral language is also the foundation for vocabulary learning that later helps children comprehend the words and messages that they read Benedictine University

9. Sociolinguistic TheoryThe At-Risk Student • Often pre-school children from at-risk communities do not: • Acquire the high-quality oral language foundations • Familiarity with Standard English syntax, or • The same vocabulary levels, that children from more affluent communities acquire Benedictine University

10. Sociolinguistic Theory The “Study” • Shirley Brice Heath’s study in the field of reading focused on: • The daily oral and written literacy practices of 3 different communities in the southeastern United States in the 1970s that differed strikingly in their: • Patterns of language use and in the paths of language socialization of their children • She gave these communities the pseudonyms of: • Maintown: Mainstream, middle-class, school-oriented culture • Roadville: White, working-class community from four generations of working in the life of the textile mill • Trackton: Black mill community of recent rural origin Benedictine University

11. Maintown Treatment andThe Results! AS A RESULT Benedictine University

12. C RoadvilleTreatment andThe Results! AS A RESULT Benedictine University

13. TracktonTreatment andThe Results! AS A RESULT Benedictine University

14. Sociolinguistic Theory In The Classroom Benedictine University

15. SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORYEDUC 622Tracey and Morrow Ch. 6 Benedictine University

16. Socio-Cultural Theory • Socio-Cultural Theory emphasizes the roles of social, cultural, and historical factors in the human experience • Woolfolk states that in this theoretical perspective: • “Knowledge is constructed based on social interactions and experience” • This theory is similar to Sociolinguistic Theory because both emphasize the social aspect of learning • However, the Sociolinguistic Theory focuses more on the language aspects of these interactions • Socio-Cultural Theory focuses more on the broader concept of culture, which includes, but is not limited to, language • This perspective has its roots in the work of Bronfenner(1979) • According to Bronfenner(1979), three spheres of influence affect human development: themicrosystem, the mesosystem, and the exosystem Benedictine University

17. Bronfenner’s Ecological Model of Human Development Benedictine University

18. Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work • Au (1997) appears to have built on Bronfenbrenner's(1979) Ecological Model, adapting the general concept of an exosystem to that of culture at large • According to Au (1997), Socio-Cultural Theory emphasizes the idea that "the human experience is mediated by culture" (p. 183) • Au writes that culture can be viewed both as a factor that is stable and persists over a long period of time, and as a factor that is unstable and constantly evolving and changing Benedictine University

19. Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work • For example, we can consider all of the 20th century as a single cultural experience, defined by such inventions as the automobile, the television, the computer, and space travel • However, if we viewed the 20th century as a factor that was ever evolving and changing, the culture of the 1920s would be regarded as drastically different from that of the 1940s, 1950s, or 1960s • As Au (1997) explains: • "In one view, culture is seen as a relatively stable, integrated whole encompassing a people's knowledge, beliefs, and ways of life. In the other view, culture is seen as an active process of change, growth, and development" (p. 182) • In the socio-cultural perspective: • Culture is viewed as tremendously important in affecting children's literacy development Benedictine University

20. Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work • In addition to emphasizing the cultural influences of learning, Socio-Cultural Theory emphasizes the social nature of learning • Au (1997) writes: • "Socio-cultural research on school literacy learning attempts to explore the links among historical conditions, current social and institutional contexts, inter-psychological functioning [that which takes place between people], and intra-psychological functioning [that which takes place within the individual]" Benedictine University

21. Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work Au makes a very interesting statement below: • School literacy learning is seen as a social process, affected not only by present but historical circumstances • Learning to read cannot logically be separated from the particular milieu in which it takes place (p. 184) • When children learn to read, or fail to learn to read, they do so in a particular social, cultural, and historical environment (p. 184) • Their success or failure in reading cannot be understood apart from that environment (p. 184) Benedictine University

22. Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work • Moll’s work is socio-cultural because it emphasizes the central role of social influence on literacy learning • Moll (1992, 1994) writes about the application of Socio-Cultural Theory to the literacy learning of marginalized students, especially those from Hispanic backgrounds • Moll asserts that mainstream classrooms are not typically designed in ways that allow Hispanic children to showcase their "funds of knowledge," that is, the sources of knowledge that are central to their homes and communities Benedictine University

23. Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work • As a result, Hispanic children are often perceived as coming from homes with limited intellectual capital and possessing limited intellectual capability • This perspective has been called a "deficit" perspective • Instead, Moll argues that teachers must begin to value children's funds of knowledge, bringing them into the classroom and using them as vehicles for literacy learning Benedictine University

24. Socio-Cultural Theory -In The Classroom • The use of literature circles in the classroom is an instructional practice that is deeply grounded in the social learning perspective, and one that can be viewed as reflective of Socio-Cultural Theory (For specific lesson plan information refer to pages 117-119) • The concept was developed by educators who believed that students would benefit from: • Talking to each other about books, but who also believed that students’ conversations needed to be structured in a way that would help them stay on task • This is consistent with the theory because students will learn from each other (social component) and the concept emphasizes the importance of students bringing knowledge and artifacts from their own lives (their culture) into discussions Benedictine University

25. SOCIALCONSTRUCTIVISMEDUC 622Tracey and Morrow Ch. 6 Benedictine University

26. Social ConstructivismVygotsky’s Influence • Lev SemionovichVygotsky, a Russian scholar, was one of the earliest and most famous theorists from the social learning perspective • Although Vygotsky's theory is literally entitled the "Socio-Historical Theory of Cognitive Development” (Dixon-Krauss, 1996), it is commonly referred to as "Social Constructivism" • Vygotsky's professional life spanned only 10 years, but during that time he wrote more than 180 works (Dixon-Krauss, 1996) • Vygotsky's work is extremely prominent and influential in the fields of psychology and education Benedictine University

27. Vygotsky’s Key Ideas • A key idea in Vygotsky's work is the belief that children learn as a result of social interactions with others • A child’s development depends on sign systems that they grow up with • “Semiotic Mediation” is the process of using the signs systems • Zone of Proximal Development refers to the ideal level of task difficulty to facilitate learning which is the level at which a child can be successful with appropriate support • Scaffolding refers to the assistance that adults and more competent peers provide during learning episodes Benedictine University

28. Vygotsky’s “Semiotic Mediation” • Vygotsky’ssecond key idea is that development depends on the sign systems with which individuals grow up • Sign systems include a culture's language, writing, and counting systems • Vygotsky argued that children's learning is most affected by their mastery of language, as evidenced by their mastery of sign systems such as the alphabet, words, listening, speaking, and writing • Vygotsky postulated that it is through the use and manipulation of these signs that children have the tools to think about and respond to the world • He called the process of using these signs systems "semiotic mediation" • He further argued that children learn the most about language and corresponding sign systems from the people around them with whom they interact Benedictine University

29. Zone of Proximal Development • The Zone of Proximal Development is an extremely influential concept within Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism • The zone of proximal development emphasizes that the ideal level of task difficulty to facilitate learning is the level at which a child can be successful with appropriate support • In Vygotsky’s view, tasks that children can independently complete do not fall within the zone of proximal development and therefore, are not ideal for promoting children's development Benedictine University

30. Scaffolding • Scaffolding refers to the assistance that adults and more competent peers provide during learning episodes • This support can take the form of "clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking down the problem into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner"(Slavin, 1997, p. 48) • This approach to learning focuses on how children learn primarily during experiences within the zone of proximal developmentas a result of others' scaffolding Benedictine University

31. Social ConstructivismIn The Classroom • Cross Age and Buddy Reading are consistent with the Social Constructivism theoretical perspective because the practices are built on the premise that children will scaffold each other’s learning during shared reading experiences • “Partner reading” refers to pairing students from within the same class to read together, while “buddy reading” refers to pairing students from different grade classrooms to read together • The research on both forms of paired reading is positive Benedictine University

32. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory • Albert Bandura (1969, 1977, 1986, 1997), a Canadian psychologist, developed another theory within the social learning perspective • Originally called "Social Learning Theory," but recently renamed "Social Cognitive Theory," this general theory of human behavior combines features of Behaviorism with those of social learning • Bandura's primary premise in creating Social Learning Theory was that a behavioral explanation of learning (see Chapter 2) did not take into account the phenomenon of vicarious learning, the notion that people learn from observing others • In fact, Bandura argued that people learn more from observing others than they do from the consequences of experiencing things themselves. Benedictine University

33. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory • Bandura suggested that it is fortunate that humans are capable of observational learning • Without it we would all have to experience everything ourselves in order to learn • Instead, we learn by observing others: their successes, failures, efforts, and styles • In Social Cognitive Theory the people from whom we learn are called "models" • Similarly, "modeling," is the action performed by the model Benedictine University

34. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory • Bandura writes that there are four stages to observational learning (Slavin, 1997) • The firststage is the attentional phase during which the observer watches the model • The secondstage is the retention phase in which the observer thinks about and processes what he or she has observed • The thirdstage of observational learning is the reproduction phase • In this phase the observer repeats the behavior that has been modeled • The fourthstage is the reinforcement phase Benedictine University

35. Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory • Bandura suggests that observers are often reinforced as they repeat modeled behaviors • For example, as children begin to learn to say "please" and "thank you" as a result of adults around them modeling these conversational courtesies, adults often reinforce them for the acquisition of these manners Benedictine University

36. CRITICAL LITERACY THEORYEDUC 622Tracey and Morrow-CH.6 Benedictine University

37. Critical Literacy Theory • Work that uses a political lens to examine literacy education falls under the umbrella of “Critical Literacy Theory” • Critical Literacy Theory considers the political aspects of literacy education in two ways: • Ways in which schooling reinforces persistent inequalities in contemporary society • Opportunities that exist within education to empower individuals to overcome such social oppression Benedictine University

38. Critical Literacy Theory • This theory challenges the traditional belief that education is a politically neutral process designed to promote the individual development of all children • According to Siegel and Fernandez (2000): • “The image of schooling as an opportunity for social mobility based on merit is replaced, in critical thought, by one that shows how schools reproduce the unequal distribution of wealth and power that is the hallmark of capitalist societies, and in so doing contributes to the maintenance of the status quo” (p.141) Benedictine University

39. Critical Literacy Theory • Friere (1970), author of Pedagogy of the Oppressed, is a key figure in the development of Critical Literacy Theory • Friere’s work presented illiteracy not as a personal failing, but “as a historically constructed product of a society structured to produce inequality”(Siegel & Fernandez, 2000, p. 146) • According to Bloome and Talwalker(1997), studies move into the realm of Critical Literacy Theory when they begin to examine the concept of power in relation to literacy learning Benedictine University

40. Critical Literacy Theory • Bloome and Talwalker note that the theory seeks to examine “how reading and writing instruction might help students acquire a critical perspective on how written language is used to promote a particular cultural ideology and how it may inhibit the growth and maintenance of minority languages and cultures”(p.109) • Gee (1990), writes that educators must investigate the ways in which literacy education has been used to “solidify the social hierarchy, empower elites and ensure that people lower on the hierarchy accept the values, norms, and beliefs of the elites, even when it is not in their interest to do so”(cited in Siegel &Fernandez, 2000, p. 142) Benedictine University

41. SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE How Is It Utilized In The Classroom? • The social learning perspective is extremely popular among reading educators! • Many current classroom practices in literacy instruction are built upon the constructs of social learning • These educational practices emphasize the social nature of learning, that is, the idea that both adults and children learn effectively from the other people in their world Benedictine University

42. Social Learning PerspectiveApply It In Your Classroom! Activities that can be implemented in the classroom are: Benedictine University