CH 510 – The History of Christianity 1

1. CH 510 – The History of Christianity 1 UNIT TWO – The Imperial Church Slides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez

2. The Dawn of the Imperial Age of the Church

3. Diocletian (244-311)

4. Diocletian reorganizes the Empire • East & West • Two Co-Emperors – Title: “Augustus” • Diocletian in the East • Maximianin the West • Two “Junior” Emperors – Title: “Caesar” • Galerius (250-311) in the East – commander of the Army of the Danube which was fighting the Persians at the time • ConstantiusChlorusin the West • This organization worked well while Diocletian was alive • Administratively easier • Relative peace • Secured line of succession (in theory preventing civil wars)

5. The Great Persecution • At first, the peace of the church seemed assured • Both Diocletian’s wife and daughter were Christians • None, but Galerius, had given any indication of enmity towards Christianity • The Cause of Persecution: Military service of Christians • No consensus among Christians about military service; many Christians in the legions • Some were condemned to death for refusing to serve, some condemned for leaving service • Christians deemed dangerous because there was no guarantee (in the eyes of their commanders) as to whether they would obey orders • Galerius convinced Diocletian to expel Christians from the legions, which he did so by decree

6. Outbreak of Persecution • Diocletian’s edict did not order any further repercussions against Christians other than expulsion from the legions • However, some officers attempted to force Christians to deny their faith • Result: a number of executions, all of them in the army of the Danube, under Galerius • In 303, Galerius convinced Diocletian to issue an edict expelling Christians from positions of public trust, and destroying all Christian books and buildings • Christians who refused to hand over their sacred writings were tortured and condemned

7. The Situation worsens… • Two fires that broke out in the Imperial palace are blamed on Christians (some suggest that Galerius was responsible) • Diocletian orders all Christians in the imperial court to offer incense before the gods (his wife and daughter comply; several others refuse and are executed) • Diocletian becomes paranoid of conspiracies against him; orders all Christian leaders arrested • Must hand over sacred writings (“Traditors”) • Must sacrifice to the gods • Many succumbed to the threats, others fled, many were martyred

8. Galerius forces Diocletian’s abdication • Diocletian becomes ill in 304; abdicates in 305 • Galerius then secures Maximian’s abdication by threatening to invade the latter’s territories; Maximian complies • ConstantiusChlorus takes over as Augustus of the West; Galerius in the East (senior emperor) • Constantius’ son, Constantine, held as hostage in Galerius’ court • Two Caesars: Severus (West) and MaximinusDaia (East) • Severus appointed Augustus in the West after Constantius’ death

9. Instability • Constantine escapes and joins his father, Constantius, in Britain • When Constantius dies, the troops refuse to obey the designs of Galerius and proclaim Constantine as their “Augustus” • An infuriated Galerius offers Constantine the position of Caesar instead; Constantine accepts the compromise • Meanwhile, Maxentius (son of the dethroned Maximian), takes Rome; Severus commits suicide • Galerius invades the West, but his troops pass over to Maxentius; forcing Galerius to go back East to appeal to the retired Diocletian to resume power • Licinius appointed by Galerius as the new Augustus in the West (308) • The Empire was in a stalemate, with competing Augusti • Civil war was inevitable

10. Persecution subsides… • Persecution continued under Galerius and MaximinusDaia unabated; the other emperors did not enforce persecution edicts • Suddenly Galerius becomes ill, and convinced that this is God’s judgment upon him, issues a decree changing the policy (April 30, 311) • Galerius dies five days later • Licinius, MaximinusDaia, Constantine, and Maxentius (usurper) • Constantine marches towards Rome, Maxentius’ capital (312)

11. Constantinethe Great

12. Constantine’s path to sole emperorship • The Battle of Milvian Bridge (October 28, 312) • Defeat and death of Maxentius • Constantine becomes master of the western empire

13. “In hoc signovinces.” • Lactantius recorded that Constantine received this sign in a dream on the night before battle and was commanded to place it on the shields and labarum of his soldiers • Eusebius records that the vision of this symbol appeared in the sky with the words: “In hoc signovinces,” i.e. “In this sign you shall conquer.” (Chi-Rho)

14. The Edict of Milan (313) • After the battle of Milvian Bridge, Constantine meets Licinius at Milan to draw up an alliance • Constantine rules the west, while the east continued to be partitioned between Licinius and MaximinusDaia • Part of the agreement was that the persecution of Christians would stop • Considered the end of official persecution, though Galerius’ edict is probably a more important watershed • Despite the Edict, MaximinusDaia continued his policy of persecution

15. In the aftermath of Milan • Constantine consolidates his power in the west, while Licinius goes off to make war with MaximinusDaia in the east • Maximinus defeated at Byzantium by Licinius (August 313) • Empire divided between Constantine and Licinius • Related by marriage, so hope that civil wars would cease • Both secretly aspired to be sole rulers • Civil war broke out in 314, and Constantine ceded all of Licinius’ European territories • The war ended with a truce that lasted until 322 • Licinius attitude towards Christians soured as he was suspicious that they were praying for the triumph of his rival, Constantine

16. Constantine defeats Licinius • Constantine invades Licinius’ territories again in 322 under false pretenses • Licinius feared Constantine’s labarum so much that he ordered his troops to avoid looking at the Christian emblem, and not to direct a frontal attack against it; Constantine’s much smaller army is victorious • Licinius flees to Byzantium, and after a series of defeats, surrenders; he is later murdered • Constantine becomes the sole emperor of the Roman world (324)

17. Byzantium • “New Rome” “Constantinople” • Constantine personally draws the line for the new walls of his city

18. From Unconquered Sun to Jesus Christ Constantine’s Religiosity

19. Constantine’s religion • Never placed himself under Christian tutelage or bishops • High ranking Christians formed part of his entourage • Continued to take part in pagan rites even after his conversion • Bishops raised no voice of condemnation • Considered himself “bishop of bishops” with the right to determine his own religious practices and even to intervene in the life of the church • Did not receive baptism until his deathbed

20. Attitude of Christian leadership • Constantine’s moral and religious deviations were seen as the actions of one who, while inclined to become a Christian, had not yet taken the decisive step (i.e. baptism) • Afforded latitude in these matters due to the favor that he poured out on the Church • Church could support and advise Constantine, but not give him spiritual direction • The truth of the matter is that Constantine was probably a true believer in the power of Christ; seeking the favor of the God of the Christians, not the Christians themselves since he had little to gain from allying himself with them • “God-fearer” analogy works here

21. Impact of Constantine • Cessation of persecution (immediate) • Development of “official theology” • Marriage of church and state? Great apostasy? • Intellectual, doctrinal development; heresy & orthodoxy • Pagan reaction –culminating in reign of Julian the Apostate • Development of liturgical cultus (worship) • Building of churches (basilicas)

22. Official Theology

23. Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263-339) • Born most likely in Palestine; spent most of his life in Caesarea • Disciple of Pamphilus of Caesarea, a teacher in the Origenist tradition • Eusebius traveled far and wide on a quest to find original Christian documents • Affected by the persecution started by Diocletian • Eventually collaborated with Pamphilus the five book Defense of Origen; added a sixth book after the latter’s martyrdom • Most important work: History of the Church • Without his work, our knowledge of the early period of church history would be reduced by half • Deep admirer of Constantine

24. Eusebius • Became bishop of Caesarea in 313 • Attended the Council of Nicaea (325) • Sympathetic to Arius, but supported Nicaea • Overall interest was the unity of the church

25. Reactions to Imperial Favor

26. The new situation – imperial favor • Eusebius represents one extreme: • Recent events are the fulfillment of God’s purposes • Imperial favor meant that church offices became positions of privilege, power and prestige • Various motives of those who desired church offices • Christians no longer lived in fear of persecution • Some considered security and comfortable living to be the greatest enemies of the faith • How was one to be true to Christ in such circumstances?

27. The Reaction of Monasticism

28. The Origins of Monasticism • Even before the Peace of Constantine, there were some who chose to live ascetical lives (e.g. self-denial, celibacy) • Origen of Alexandria • Platonic ideals reinforced by statements from the gospels and Paul’s letters (e.g. eunuchs for the kingdom?) • Appeal of asceticism among the Gnostics • Roots of monasticism both inside and outside the church • Asceticism popular in Greek Philosophy • Platonism • Stoicism • Imperial favor for the Church meant a new appeal to these approaches to spirituality

29. The Desert Fathers

30. Monasticism • “Monk” comes from monachos(meaning “solitary”) • “Anchorite” – meaning “withdrawn” or “fugitive” • Two early biographers of desert fathers: • Athansius’ Life of Anthony • Jerome’s Life of Paul the Hermit • Monasticism not the invention of an individual, but rather a mass movement or “exodus” from the world into the wilderness where individuals could live the “ideal” of self-sacrifice and prayer unhindered from the world

31. St. Anthony of the Desert (c. 251-356)

32. St. Pachomius (c. 286-348)

33. Communal (Cenobitic) Monasticism • Increasingly, solitary monasticism would give way to communal monasticism (by default) • Cenobitic (meaning “communal”) • Pachomius’ vision to “serve humankind” (rejected it at first) • Repeated attempts • Success based on the adoption of a rigorous rule • Rule of life: work and devotion • Monastic enclosures

34. Monastic Life (Pachomian) • “Pray without ceasing” • Defined daily roles and chores (bakery, cobblers, etc.) • Psalmody, Scripture reading and meditation, prayer (corporate and private) • Regular meeting times (morning/evening) • Hierarchy: abbots, archimandrites (vows of obedience to superiors) • Typically dependent on churches and regular clergy for sacramental administrations (Eucharist) • Attracted pagans as well as Christians

35. Proliferation of Monasticism • Various Lives of notable monks (e.g. those written by Athanasius, Jerome) popularized the monastic spirit • Notable church fathers founded monasteries (e.g. Basil the Great)

36. The Schismatic Reaction

37. Donatism (4th century) • The question of the “lapsed” • The question arose after each violent persecution • Novatian schism (3rd century) • Cyprian of Carthage – Episcopal authority vs. Confessors • The early 4th century persecutions had been particularly violent in North African; many had yielded to pressure to renounce the faith or hand over the scriptures • Traditores: • Some handed over fake scriptures • Some handed over genuine Christian scriptures

38. Confessors • Those who survived imprisonment and/or torture during periods of persecution – Confessors • Highly respected for the firmness of their faith • The “intercession” of Confessors was sought in cases of those who had lapsed • In his day, Cyprian of Carthage battled with confessors who were often too ready to readmit the lapsed back into the communion of the church without regard to the authority of bishops • The situation was different in the 4th century: Confessors took a harder line against the lapsed than the bishops • Bishops were accused of being “traditores” simply for being lenient to the lapsed

39. Controversy over Caecilian (311) • Dispute over the see of the famous Cyprian of Carthage • Caecilian was elected shortly after the end of the persecution in the west; not popular with the rigorist party • Caecilian was known for denouncing the fanatical craving for martyrdom that was popular in North Africa during the last persecution • Consecrated in haste by Bishop Felix of Aptunga • Denounced by Secundus, Primate of Numidia, who denounced Felix as a “traditore” • The rigorous party then elected Majorinus as a rival bishop • Majorinus died shortly afterwards • Donatus elected after the death of Majorinus; leader of the rigorous movement for nearly 50 years

40. Donatist Schism • The bishop of Rome and many other bishops quickly declared in favor of Caecilian, asserting that Majorinus and Donatus were usurpers • Constantine took great interest in the controversy • Imperial policy against the Donatists; suppression

41. Causes: theological, political & economic • Theological: Validity of Sacramental Administrations • Were the sacraments of “heretical” bishops valid? • Some of the Donatist bishops were questionable • Political & Economic: • Cosmopolitan vs. Rural • Romanized (Latin) vs. Native (indigenous culture/language)

42. Donatism vs. The “World” • Early Donatists not opposed to the empire as much as they were to “worldliness” • Thus the Donatist movement is seen as a reaction to the “new situation” of Imperial favor upon recognized Christianity • Nevertheless, they repeatedly sought for a repeal of Constantine’s policy against them; and official recognition • CIRCUMCELLIONS (c. 340): • Considered “bandits” – resorted to violence • Fanatics for martyrdom (i.e. terrorists) • Romans had no other recourse than the violent suppression of the Donatists • Donatism persisted even after the invasion of the Vandals (5th century)

43. Augustine of Hippo (354-430)

44. The Arian Challenge

45. Testing Imperial intervention • Constantine’s peace was destined to change the way the Church would deal with doctrinal disagreements and controversies • Constantine had hoped that Christianity could unify the empire (“cement of the Empire”); thus took a personal interest in disputes which threatened the Church’s unity • In time, imperial intervention in doctrinal matters would be used to serve political ends and often prove to be the cause of lasting divisions

46. The Arian Controversy • Seedbed of the controversy: Alexandrian approach • Accommodationist stance towards Philosophy • Representative theologians: Justin, Clement, Origen • God seen as “perfection” (i.e. immutable, impassible, and fixed, unbegotten) • Allegorical interpretation helped Hellenistic thinkers to make sense of a Bible which presented an “earthy” God • Logos theology: Logos = reason of God (personal, capable of direct relations with the world and with humans)

47. Logos Theology Immutable God (Perfection) Mediating Logos (Reason) Mutable Created Order (Humanity) (Imperfect)

48. Logos Theology: “Begottenness” • The Arian controversy would hinge on the interpretation of the Greek term gennetos (“begotten”) • In Greek philosophy this term had a broader, hence vaguer sense than the way it is used in the NT • “came to be” or “derived from” or “generated” • Alexandrian Christian thought had learned to express its monotheistic stance by insisting that God is the sole agennetos(“underived” or “unbegotten”) • All else that exists was derived or generated (including the Son) • However, the way that the Son was generated was unique over against the way all other things were generated

49. Origen’s understanding • All things were generated or “begotten” out of nonexistence (creatio ex nihilo), except for the Son • The Logos (Son) was generated or “born” from God, and thus was truly the “only-begotten Son” of the Father • The Logos is “eternally begotten” (begotten from eternity) • Hence the Logos is in a secondary but real sense divine • What Origenist tradition envisaged was a pluralism of divine persons within a hierarchy of being: God (eternal, unchanging first principle) The Logos or Son (Image of God, begotten from God) All Creatures (called out of non-existence)

50. Alexander vs. Arius • Alexander: contended for the co-eternal Word • Argued that Arius denied the divinity of Christ • Church always worshiped Jesus; either worship had to cease or the Church would be sanctioning creature worship • Arius: “There was when he was not” • The Word (Logos) is the “first” creation • The Word pre-existed the Incarnation • Argued that Alexander denied monotheism • Alexander condemns Arius • Arius appealed to his former students and bishops in the East • Protests in Alexandria on behalf of Arius