JPN494: Japanese Language and Linguistics JPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics

1. JPN494: Japanese Language and LinguisticsJPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics Morphology (1)

2. Morphology • Morphology is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and the relationships among words. • trees → tree+s • rider → ride+er • 食べさせられた → tabe+sase+rare+ta • 生米箱 (なまごめばこ) → [nama+[kome+hako]]

3. What is a word? • He is nice. • He’s nice. • He isn’t nice. • John met Bill’s mother. • John met Bill Gates. • John went to Chase Field Ballpark. • waterbed, cash register, salad dressing, school trip, …

4. Phonological information is useful for determining the word-hood of an expression. • Between two words, there tends to be a phonological disjuncture. • captain • Cantaloupe tends to mature early and uniformly. • In English, each (content) word has a stressed syllable. • black board vs. blackboard • white house vs. Whitehouse • Certain phonological rules (e.g. the SV rule) apply only within a word: • 本の箱 (ほんのはこ) vs. 本箱 (ほんばこ)

5. 鈴木さんが来た • [sɯzɯkjisaŋŋa …] (or [sɯzɯkjisaŋga …]) • 鈴木さんが来なかった • 鈴木さんが来たらしい • 鈴木さんが来たのかもしれない • 鈴木さんがお菓子を食べさせられたようだ

6. Simple vs. complex words • A word can be simple or complex. • Simple words like tree and 木 (き) cannot be broken down into smaller parts. • Complex words trees and 庭木 (にわき) are made up of more than one meaningful part. • Morpheme: the smallest meaningful part of a linguistic expression that can be identified by segmentation.

7. phone : phoneme – morph : morpheme • E.g., the morph -ru ([ɾɯ]) and the morph -u ([ɯ])are allomorphs of the present tense morpheme. • In practice, the term “morpheme” is used to refer to a specific form (i.e. morph) too.

8. Additional examples of allomorphy: • [ame] ~ [ama] ~ [same] • 雨 (あめ), にわか雨 (にわかあめ), 雨風 (あめかぜ) • 雨傘 (あまがさ), 雨蛙 (あまがえる), 雨宿り (あまやどり) • 小雨 (こさめ), 春雨 (はるさめ), 霧雨 (きりさめ) • [ki] ~ [gi] ~ [ko] • 木 (き), 庭木 (にわき) • 木々 (きぎ), 寄木 (よせぎ) • 木立 (こだち), 木枯らし (こがらし)

9. Internal structure of a word • base + suffix: • tree + s = trees • ride + er = rider • tall + est = tallest • 現実 + 的 = 現実的 (げんじつてき) • 食べ + させ + た = 食べさせた • 子供 +　っぽい = 子供っぽい (こどもっぽい)

10. Internal structure of a word • prefix + base • re + arrange = rearrange • un + known = unknown • out + number = outnumber • 亜 + 熱帯 = 亜熱帯 (あねったい; sub-tropic) • お + 友達 = お友達 (おともだち) • まっ + 白 = まっ白 (まっしろ)

11. subtypes of affixes: • prefixes: pre-mature, re-confirm, … • suffixes: eat-ing, writ-er,… • infixes: kayu ‘wood’ → k-in-ayu ‘gathered wood’ (Bonto Igorot; The infix -in- indicates the product of a completed action) • circumfixes: ge-geb-en ‘given’ (German)

12. “The part of the word that an affix is attached to is called the base” (Haspelmath 2002) • A base tends to be used as a stand-alone word. • The base has a concrete meaning, while affixes’ meanings are more abstract (to varying degrees). • The base tends to be longer than affixes. • An affixed base may serve as a base for another affix ([re+[[simple+ify]+cation]] → resimplification)

13. Internal structure of a word • base + base (compounding) • N+N = N: landlord, snail mail, … • A+N = N: blackboard, wildfire, … • V+N = N: scarecrow, pickpocket, … • P+N = V: overdose, underdog, … • A+A = A: bittersweet, red-hot, … • N+A = A: skin-deep, sky-blue, … • P+V = V: undercook, oversee, …

14. Internal structure of a word • base + base (compounding) (cont.) • N+N = N: 山道 (やまみち), 鳥もち (とりもち), … • A+N = N: 黒あめ (くろあめ), 白蟻 (しろあり), … • V+N = N: 買い物 (かいもの), 売り場 (うりば), … • V+V = V: 叩き壊す (たたきこわす), 泣きわめく (なきわめく), … • A+A = A: 甘辛い (あまからい), 赤黒い (あかぐろい) … • N+A = A: 肌寒い (はだざむい), 心温まる (こころあたたまる), …

15. Reduplication • Reduplication is a special kind of compounding: • 山々 (やまやま), 人々 (ひとびと), … • いろいろ, ときどき, … • 蝶々 (ちょうちょう), …

16. Clipping • A process whereby a shortened word is formed which does not differ semantically from the longer version: • ビルディング → ビル • 友達 → ダチ • Acronym (e.g. NATO) and alphabetism (e.g. CD) may be considered sub-types of clipping.

17. Compound words often undergo clipping: • The “携帯” type • 携帯電話 (けいたいでんわ) → 携帯 • スーパーマーケット → スーパー • かけそば → かけ • The “パソコン” type • 学生割引 (がくせいわりびき) → 学割 • 電気卓上機 (でんきたくじょうき) → 電卓 • パーソナルコンピューター → パソコン • プロフェッショナルレスリング → プロレス • The “ガム” type • チューインガム → ガム • プラットホーム → ホーム

18. Generally, the meaning of a compound word is less predictable than that of an affixed word. • horse shoe vs. alligator shoe • 薬棚 (くすりだな) vs. 漆棚 (うるしだな) • たい焼き vs. たこ焼き vs. 鉄板 (てっぱん) 焼き • breakable, drinkable, movable, wearable, transformable…; cf. readable, payable • 甘さ (あまさ), 難しさ (むずかしさ), 厳しさ (きびしさ), …

19. A classification of morphemes • Morphemes can be classified into free morphemes and bound morphemes. • Free morphemes are those morphemes that can be used as “stand-alone” words: • e.g. tree, red, this; 本, あなた, これ • Free morphemes ≠ words; a free morpheme may serve as a base to which an affix is attached. • redness, 本好き(ほんずき)

20. A classification of morphemes • Bound morphemes can be divided into: • affixes (suffixes, prefixes, …) • bound bases • kak(-u, -eba, ...) (書く) • contracted forms • I’m, he’ll, haven’t • cf. tabe-nak-eɾeba → tabe-nak-eɾja

21. A classification of morphemes • “Cranberry morphemes” are a special type of bound morphemes that cannot be assigned a particular meaning: • cran-(berry) • (re-, per-, con-)ceive • twi-light • spick and span • えもんかけ (衣紋掛け; a （coat） hanger) • むりやり • にべもない (curt)

22. A classification of morphemes • free morphemes (independent bases) • clitics • contracted forms in English • particles in Japanese (?) … • bound morphemes (affixes & bound bases)

23. Clitics: (i) phonologically dependent on its host, but (ii) syntactically independent • He’s sick. • phonologically: {he’s} {sick} • syntactically: [he][’s sick]

24. 背が高い男が立っている • phonologically: {…} {男が} {立っている} • syntactically: [[[背が高い]男]が][立っている] • OR syntactically: [[背が高い][男が]][立っている] • [of [the tall man]] • [the tall [man’s]] or [[the tall man]’s]

25. Inflection vs. derivation • In the tradition of linguistic studies of Indo-European languages, it is widely accepted that there are two types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.

26. Inflectional affixes in English: • nominal: • plural: girls • posessive: Mary’s • verbal: • 3rd person singular present: bakes • past: waited • progressive: singing • perfect: baked, eaten • adjectival: • comparative: faster • superlative: fastest

27. English has a relatively few number of inflectional affixes (among Indo-European languages). • gender (masculine, feminine, neutral …), case (nominative, accusative, dative, …), … • future, imperfective past, subjunctive, imperative, conditional, …

28. paradigm: a set of words that consist of [base] + [inflectional affixes] • {car, cars, car’s, cars’} • {bake, baking, bakes, baked, baked} • Sometimes, certain “slots” of a paradigm are filled by irregular forms (irregular forms that have a different base are called suppletive forms) • {go, going, goes, went, gone} • “Words” in a paradigm are said to be realizations of the same “word”. • “Word” in the first sense: word form • “Word” in the second sense: lexeme

29. What’s the difference between derivational vs. inflectional affixes? • Inflectional affixes indicate certain grammatical functions of words: • number, gender, case; person, voice, mood, polarity, tense; degree • Derivational affixes may change the category of the base, while inflectional affixes do not. • ride: rider, wit: outwit; cf. charge: recharge • Inflectional affixes are attached “after” derivational affixes. • [[modern + ize] + ed] • [[[modern + ize] + er] + s] • Inflection changes the meanings in a more systematic/predictable way than derivation • read-able, question-able; point-er, broil-er

30. Particles may be considered inflectional affixes (if they are analyzed as affixes rather than clitics): • そばやが,そばやを, そばやに, そばやの

31. Inflectional affixes in Japanese? The so-called auxiliary verbs (助動詞); there are opposing views. Affixes: • tense: tabe-ru, tabe-ta; hanas-u, hanas-ita • causative: tabe-sase-ru; hanas-ase-ru • passive: tabe-rare-ru; hanas-are-ru • potential: tabe-(ra)re-ru; hanas-e-ru • volitional: tabe-yoo; hanas-oo • imperative: tabe-ro, tabe-runa; hanas-e, hana-suna • negative: tabe-na-i, tabe-nakat-ta; hanas-ana-i, hanas-anakat-ta • desiderative: tabe-ta-i, hanas-ita-i • gerund: tabe-φ(-te), hanas-i(-te) • conditional: tabe-reba, tabe-tara; hanas-eba, hanas-ba

32. Orders of affixes • root (base) - • {φ, causative} - • {φ, passive} - • {φ, potential, desiderative} - • {φ, polite} - • {φ, negative} - • {tense, imperative, volitional, gerund, conditional} 食べろ: tabe-ro 食べられました: tabe-rare-mas-ita 食べさせられなかった: tabe-sase-rare-nakat-ta

33. Auxiliary verbs (type 1): • aspect: tabe-te-i-ru • benefactive: tabe-te-yar-u, tabe-te-kure-u • … 食べさせていられなかった (he couldn’t be letting him eat)

34. Auxiliary verbs (type 2): • のだ: tabe-ta-noda • ようだ: tabe-ta-yooda • わけだ: tabe-ta-wakeda • そうだ: tabe-ta-sooda • らしい: tabe-ta-rasi-i • だろう: tabe-ta-daroo • Type 2 auxiliary verbs (except for だろう) have their own past tense forms (のだった, ようだった, わけだった, そうだった, らしかった), and polite forms (のです, ようです, わけです, そうです, らしいです, でしょう), etc. • そうらしい, そうだろう 食べさせていられなかったらしいです (It seems that he couldn’t be letting him eat)