Originally developed by Dr. Jim Dyer of the University of Florida Modified by Dr. David Agnew, September, 2006 Arkansas

1. Originally developed by Dr. Jim Dyerof the University of FloridaModified by Dr. David Agnew, September, 2006Arkansas State University Research Applications in Career & Technical Education

2. Review

3. Overview of Research • What is research? (review) • What are the types of studies? • What terms are associated with research? • What is the purpose of research? • What are the characteristics of research?

4. What is Research? • The systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of phenomenon under consideration Disciplined Inquiry

5. What Are the Types of Studies? • Status • variable cannot be manipulated by researcher. • Associational • variable can be manipulated by researcher, but is not. • Experimental • variable is manipulated by researcher.

6. What terms are associated with research? • Variable • any factor having two or more mutually exclusive properties or values. • Dependent (criterion) variable • Outcome, cannot change. • Independent variable • can manipulate.

7. Terms • Extraneous variable • may affect dependent variable and change result. • Antecedent variable • present at beginning. • Covariate • antecedent or extraneous variable measured before and after treatment.

8. Terms (continued) • Discrete • one specific meaning--hair color, grade (A-F), marital status (S,M,D,W) • Continuous • can have only one value--IQ, age • Dichotomous • discrete variable with only two distinct categories--yes/no, gender

9. Terms • Hypothesis • statement of expectation. • Null Hypothesis (HO) • stated for no change. • Alternate Hypothesis (HA) • stated for change. • Directional Hypothesis (H1) • states direction of change.

10. Terms • Cronbach’s alpha • measures internal consistency based upon relationship to other statements on instrument. • a priori • prior to • Population (target population) • group to which we generalize. (N) • Sample • smaller group of population. (n)

11. Terms (continued) • Sampling frame • list of accessible people. • Experimentally accessible population • members of population we can access. • Parameter • unknown characteristic of the population. • Statistic • known characteristic of the sample.

12. What is the Purpose of Research? • Describe -- Ex: settings • Predict -- Ex: success based on ACT • Improve--Ex: teaching methods • Explain -- answers “why?”

13. What Are the Types of Research -- by Purpose • Basic • results in development of new knowledge without concern for how or where it will be used. • Applied • tests theories developed by basic research. • Action • has specific application with the decision-maker involved in conducting the research.

14. Types of Research -- by Philosophy • Quantitative -- (Positivistic) • Things are meaningful only if we can verify them with our five senses. • Qualitative -- (Post-positivistic) • All research is value-laden. Can’t remove self from research.

15. Types of Research -- by Method • Experimental • Correlational • Evaluation • Historical • Naturalistic • Survey Survey Experimental Histo al Correlational Eva tion Naturalistic

16. Experimental • Definition • Establishes cause and effect relationship. • Systemmatically answers: Is there a difference in characteristic X between and within groups and with and without characteristic Y? (Ex: productivity & background music)

17. Experimental • Purpose • Seeks to identify differences between and/or within groups to the extent they possess characteristics which can be measured in quantitative terms. • Example: • “The Effect of PowerPoint Visuals on Achievement in a Research Methods Course”

18. Experimental • Nature • Involve systematic manipulation of some characteristic • Only way to identify cause and effect • Starts with hypothesis (a priori) • Write research problem as a question • Write hypothesis as an answer to the question (statement)

19. Experimental • Strengths • rigorous; replicable • can specify likelihood of errors of inference • forces us to be explicit about variables to be studied and hypotheses to be tested • Limitations • tendency to disvalue qualitative information • confuse statistical with logical/practical meaning • results are “average,” individuals are nuisances

20. Correlational • Definition • Answers the question: “To what extent are characteristics X and Y related?” (Ex: the louder the music, the higher the productivity). • Purpose • determines relationship • does NOT determine cause • predict score on one variable from knowledge of another

21. Correlational • Nature • involves collection of information about several characteristics • measures relationship • Example: • The Relationship Between GRE Scores and Graduate GPA of Agricultural Education Doctoral Students at Iowa State University

22. Correlational • Strengths • analyze relationships among large number of variables in single study • provides information on degree of relationship • predict characteristic • Limitations • not cause and effect • difficult to identify all variables--best to use lit review

23. Evaluation • Definition • Collection and use of information to facilitate decision making or determination of worth • Purpose • assists in decision making • aids in planning • assists in meeting accountability demands

24. Evaluation • Nature • intentions vary per study • results for specific situation only • audience is important for design & reporting • usually done for a client • Example • An Assessment of the Grading Practices in the College of Agriculture at Iowa State University

25. Evaluation • Strengths • information for program improvement (action) • provides accountability information • looks at processes and products • Limitations • danger of being too subjective • difficult to evaluate and set criteria for some processes & products (intangible, unintended)

26. Historical • Definition • narration and description of “true” record of past events, their developmental trends, and their interpretation • it is a longitudinal, genetic, or developmental approach in the past • attempts to discern actual meaning of primary and secondary sources by subjecting to external and internal criticism

27. Historical • Purpose • construction of conceptual frameworks • collection and analysis of historical evidence • determination of meaning • Nature • involves collection and analysis of primary and secondary sources • no variables

28. Historical • Example • The Origin and Development of Agricultural Education in America • Strengths • understanding of history • Limitations • past view is easily distorted in present setting • difficult to remain objective--selective searching

29. Naturalistic • Definition • attends to ordinary happenings and uses common language reporting to provide experience for research audience • Purpose • oriented to practice, not theory • Example • Case Studies in Agricultural Education

30. Naturalistic • Nature • observation and interview techniques used • high attention to context • narrative reporting with illustrations • variables not used as conceptual structure • Strengths • easy to comprehend by lay people, interesting • resists some research oversimplifications

31. Naturalistic • Limitations • requires special research skills to do properly • researcher-biased, objectivity poorly controled • difficult to summarize, lots of notes • time-consuming to conduct

32. Survey (descriptive) • Definition • present-oriented methodology used to investigate populations using samples to analyze interrelationships among variables • used to collect facts and assess beliefs, interests, and attitudes • Example • The Career Interests of Secondary Agricultural Education Students

33. Survey (descriptive) • Purpose • clarify and describe problems through data gathering process • Descriptive -- describes phenomena at point in time • Comparative -- compares populations on some criteria • Evaluative -- assesses aspects of setting by some criteria

34. Survey (descriptive) • Nature • involves identification of population, sampling plan, & variables; data gathering instrument; natural setting • Strengths • large amount of information • can quickly get data • well suited for extensive research

35. Survey (descriptive) • Limitations • may be superficial, not in-depth • in longitudinal studies, difficult to remain in contact with respondents

36. The Research Problem

37. Stating the Research Problem • Use a complete sentence with as few words as possible. • Limit/focus the statement. • Examples: • Using learning teams = “What effect does learning teams have on achievement?” • Effect of problem solving approach = “What is the effect of the problem solving approach on student achievement, attitude, and retention of subject matter?”

38. Stating the Research Problem • Delimit research -- what will be done? • Define terms -- define only those terms which may be confusing or have special meaning. • State assumptions -- what do you assume? • State research hypotheses and/or research questions -- use these to guide study. • Explain importance of study.

39. Reviewing Literature

40. Purpose of a Lit Review • What has been done? • What was found? • Were there problems with prior studies that you can avoid? • Where are the holes in the research base? (What has yet to be found?)

41. Tools of Research (Leedy) • Library • Measurement techniques--Design • Computer Programs (SPSS, SAS) • Statistics • Writing ability

42. Library • Sources of information • Primary sources • Secondary sources • Conducting the literature review • ERIC • RIE • DAI

43. Planning the Research Design

44. Criteria for Research Project • Universality -- can be completed by anyone • Replication -- can be repeated under same conditions with same results • Control -- use parameters to control as many variables as possible • Measurement -- important to quantify as much as possible

45. Data Collection • What data are needed? • Where can we get it? • How can we get it? • How will it be interpreted?

46. Aggregate Data • Definition of:To gather, collect or assemble. For example, "to aggregate data" means to gather separate sets of data. As a noun, "aggregate data" is data that has been collected from two or more sources.

47. Ethical Standards • Personal integrity of researcher, fair, honest • Right of privacy of participants • Disclosure of methods • Reason for research • Informed willingness • Respect for integritity of individual • Acknowledge financial support

48. Effects • Hawthorne Effect -- any change in environment produces a change in response. • John Henry Effect -- Control group sees itself in competition with main group. • Pygmalian Effect -- We see what we want to see.

49. Contamination • Experimenter -- researcher knowingly or unknowingly influences application or observation of treatment. • Statistical -- related data are treated as being independent in the statistical analysis.

50. Bias in Research Design • Deliberate -- check numbers • Non-deliberate -- phrases, titles, etc. (“What’s wrong with Ag. Ed.?) • Selection • Volunteers • Mortality (why did they leave) • Groups that differ • Learning time • Teacher Quality