Understanding Persuasive Speech Types & Strategies

Oral Communications Analysis and Evaluation

California Content StandardsAnalysis and Evaluation of Oral and Media Communications • 1.13 Analyze the four basic types of persuasive speech (i.e. propositions of fact, value, problem or policy) and understand the similarities and differences in their patterns of organization and the use of persuasive language, reasoning and proof.

Types of Persuasive Speeches • Propositions of fact • Propositions of value • Propositions of problem • Propositions of policy

Propositions of Fact • A fact claim is a statement about how things were in the past, how they are in the present, or how they will be in the future. A fact claim is not a fact; it only claims to be a fact. What makes it arguable is that the speaker has no direct way of establishing the truth of the claim.

Propositions of Fact • For example, "The Earth is round" is a proven fact. "In our right-handed world, left-handed people are discriminated against" is a fact claim. A persuasive speaker must provide arguments which build a case in favor of the claim, showing that the claim is probably true, or at least is more likely true than false.

Propositions of Value • Value claims are arguable statements concerning the relative merits of something which is measured subjectively (e.g., "Victoria is a better place to go for summer vacation than Calgary"). What makes a value claim arguable is that different people may disagree on the criteria used to evaluate something (e.g., weather, live entertainment, water sports). Differing value claims may be used to argue the value of a variety of topics (e.g., movies, styles of living, community organizations). Defending a value claim involves offering a set of criteria for consideration, defending the set of criteria as legitimate, and showing how applying the criteria justifies the claim.

Propositions of Value • Differing value claims may be used to argue the value of a variety of topics (e.g., movies, styles of living, community organizations). Defending a value claim involves offering a set of criteria for consideration, defending the set of criteria as legitimate, and showing how applying the criteria justifies the claim.

Propositions of Problem • A proposition is the main point or viewpoint that the speaker/writer sets out to establish or defend. Presenting a problem claim offers one or more viable solutions. It is not the same as propositions of fact, value or policy in that it centers on a problem and follows a problem/solution organizational format.

Proposition of Policy • A policy claim is a statement regarding the merits of one course of action as opposed to other courses of action. What makes a policy claim arguable is that, even though people and institutions may not be totally certain about the proper course of action to take, they still must act. To argue in defense of a policy claim is to state that, given the knowledge we have at the present time, it is best to act in the manner proposed rather than in some alternative way.

Content Standards • 1.6 Use logical, ethical, and emotional appeals that enhance the specific tone and purpose.

Appeals in Persuasive Speeches • Three basic strategies used in persuasion are appeal to reason, appeal to audience emotion, and appeal to audience needs. Speakers should remember their ethical responsibilities and not use dishonest or misleading persuasive appeals. This will also weaken one’s argument.

Types of Appeal • ETHOS: kind of person you are -- your education, honesty, reputation, delivery skills • LOGOS: appeals to the rational intellect -- proving that we need a change • PATHOS: appeals to our passions and will; using emotional proofs -- appealing to deeply held values

Persuasive Speech Formats

Content Standards • 1.12 Identify logical fallacies used in oral addresses (e.g. attack ad hominem, false causality, red herring, overgeneralization, bandwagon effect).

Logical Fallacies: Ad Hominem • "Ad Hominem" means "against the man" or "against the person." • An Ad Hominem is when a claim or argument is rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the author or the person presenting the claim or argument. Typically, this fallacy involves two steps. • First, an attack against the character of person making the claim, her circumstances, or her actions is made (or the character, circumstances, or actions of the person reporting the claim). • Second, this attack is taken to be evidence against the claim or argument the person in question is making (or presenting).

Ad Hominem • This type of "argument" has the following form: • 1. Person A makes claim X. • 2. Person B makes an attack on person A. • 3. Therefore A's claim is false. The reason why an Ad Hominem (of any kind) is a fallacy is that the character, circumstances, or actions of a person do not (in most cases) have a bearing on the truth or falsity of the claim being made (or the quality of the argument being made).

False Causality • False causality: an action purported to cause an effect, which does not, in fact, cause the effect. It does not fit into the following four possibilities: • 1. A causes B. • 2. B causes A. • 3. A and B are both caused by a third factor, C. • 4. The observed correlation was due purely to chance.

Red Herring • A Red Herring is a fallacy in which an irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue. The basic idea is to "win" an argument by leading attention away from the argument and to another topic.

Red Herring • This sort of "reasoning" has the following form: • 1. Topic A is under discussion. • 2. Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A). • 3. Topic A is abandoned. • This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because merely changing the topic of discussion hardly counts as an argument against a claim.

Examples of Red Herring • "We admit that this measure is popular. But we also urge you to note that there are so many bond issues on this ballot that the whole thing is getting ridiculous." • "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."

Overgeneralization • A generalization that goes beyond the evidence. • Extending the argument to include broad, unsubstantiated claims.

Bandwagon Effect • The observation that people often do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. • An effort to win an argument by ignoring relevant facts and logic and instead appealing to a person’s desire to feel or act like everyone else around him.

Websites Cited: • http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/comm20/mod6.html • http://www.mikeleal.com/speech/chapter15.html • http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/ad-hominem.html • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misuse_of_statistics • http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/red-herring.html • http://www.abcte.org/teach/english-standards • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect

Understanding Persuasive Speech Types & Strategies