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Global Warming:

Global Warming:. &. Strategies for overcoming Greenhouse Gas Emissions. What are Greenhouse Gases?. GHG’s are the radiative force in the greenhouse effect: balancing the net radiation coming in and out of the atmosphere from the sun keeping the surface temp balanced

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Global Warming:

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  1. Global Warming: & Strategies for overcoming Greenhouse Gas Emissions

  2. What are Greenhouse Gases? • GHG’s are the radiative force in the greenhouse effect: balancing the net radiation coming in and out of the atmosphere from the sun keeping the surface temp balanced • Increasing concentrations of GHG’s warms the Earth’s atmosphere (Global Warming) • Major GHG’s: ozone, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and human made fluorinated gases • Human influence on greenhouse effect is mainly through the release of CO2

  3. Simple understanding of Greenhouse Effect http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/education/scienceofclimatechange/understanding/greenhouse_gases/index_e.html

  4. Main Types of Greenhouse Gases • Carbon Dioxide (CO2): burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gases, and coal), decaying organic material, industrial by-products, deforestation • Methane (CH4): production and transportation of fossil fuels, livestock, agricultural practices, and decay of organic waste • Nitrous Oxide (N2O): agricultural and industrial activities and burning of fossil fuels and waste • Fluorinated Gases (very strong synthetic gases): industrial processes, includes chlorofluorocarbons

  5. How Humans emit GHG • Burning of fossil fuels • Deforestation • Livestock Industry • Vented septic systems and landfills • Agricultural Activities • Use of Synthetic gases like chlorofluorocarbons in refrigerating systems and manufacturing processes

  6. World CO2 Emissionsfrom the Consumption and Flaring of Fossil Fuels 2005 in Million Metric Tons • World Total: 28,192.74 MM tons • USA: 5,956.98 MMtons • 21.2% of human emitted Carbon dioxide • 20.14 metric tons per capita • Asia/Oceania: 10,362.49 MMtons • 36.8% of all Human emitted CO2, • BUT their per capita is only 2.87 metric tons • USA CO2 emissions from • Petroleum: 2,613.96 million metric tons • Natural Gas: 1,201.37 million metric tons • Coal: 2,141.66 million metric tons • Stats from 2005, but posted in Sept. 2007 from EIA http://www.eia.doe.gov/environment.html

  7. CO2 Emissions • U.S. carbon dioxide emissions have grown by an average of 1.3 percent annually since 1990 • CO2 growth is mainly from population growth • Transportation sector is the largest source of CO2 emissions • Anthropogenic CO2 emissions total roughly 7 billion tons of Carbon a year.

  8. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/environment/057304.pdf

  9. Kyoto Protocol is a way to reduce GHG by regulations and limits 174 parties who have ratified the protocol 36 countries are required to reduce GHG to specific levels The US is not apart of it! Some of the countries that ARE include the EU, Germany, Russia, Romania, Iceland Global Trends • Six Kyoto GHG’s: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulful hexafluoride, HFCs and PFCs http://www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/TrendGHGemissions1990-2004.html

  10. US Greenhouse Gas Abatement Mapping Initiative Executive Report • The USA abatement programs have been hypothesized to be “full blown” by 2030 Areas of Focus: • Reducing Carbon Intensity of Electric Power • CCS, Wind, Nuclear, Solar Photovoltaics, Natural Gas-fired power • Expanding and Enhancing Carbon Sinks • Afforestation of pastureland and cropland • Conservation tillage • Forest management practices • Winter Crop Covers • Fuel Efficiency and Hybrid development • Biofuels (cellulosic) • Improving conventional vehicles • Hybrid and Plug-in Hybrid development • Energy and Building Efficiency • Combined Heat and Power Application (CHP) • Residential Heat Power

  11. Strategies for Reducing GHG’s • Research and Development of Renewable Energies • Solar Energy • Wind Energy • Biomass/Biofuel • Ocean (Wave and Tidal) • Hybrid systems • Fuel Cell Technology • Nuclear Energy • Higher Efficiency for Industries • Mixture of all! • Clean Coal • Carbon Capture and Sequestration

  12. What is Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS)? • CCS is the capturing of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and emission streams and then storing it back in the Earth. • Estimates suggest that storage potential in geological formations of around 2000 GtCO2 (about 80 years of current global emissions)! • 3-step process • CO2 Capture from power plants, industrial sources and natural gas wells • Compression and Transportation by pipeline or tankers • Storage in Geological Reservoir Sequestration, Terrestrial Sequestration and Ocean Sequestration

  13. Carbon Capture • Capture is possible at different times and using different processes: • Before combustion (pre-combustion)  decarbonization of fossil fules • After Combustion (post-combustion)  capture from flue gas • CO2 can be separated from the following during both pre and post combustion • Natural Gas • Flue gases from: • SC-PCC plants (Supercritical Pulverised Coal Combustion • SC-PCC with Oxyfuel Combustion • IGCC plants (Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle) • NGCC plants (Natural Gas Combined Cycle)

  14. Pre-Combustion Capture • Coal, or other fossil fuels, is gasified which converts the coal into a gaseous fuel by reacting it with high temperatures and certain amounts of oxygen. • Through conversion it becomes a gas known as synthesis gas (syngas) which mainly consists of CO and H2 and the CO2 can be separated and captured • A few ways to do this: • IGCC Plants • NGCC Plants

  15. Post Combustion Capture • Chemically absorbing CO2 from flue gas in SC-PCC plants and NGCC plants using Amines and other chemical absorbents • Oxyfuel combustion which produces almost pure CO2 that can be easily separated. • Side note: Other separation methods such as membranes are being considered as a potential longer-term option for both pre/post combustion capture alone or in combination with other absorption techniques

  16. Plant Types: Supercritical Pulverized Coal Combustion (SC-PCC) • Pulverized coal combustion is the dominate coal generation in the US at the moment and uses very finely ground coal • 37 % Net Energy Efficient • HHV: 9,300 Btu/kWh • Capture from Flue Gas: • captured by chemical absorbents that are heated to release CO2 and regenerated. The high CO2 concentration is what facilitates the capture. • Amines are the common chemical absorbent • Energy required for solvent regeneration and CO2 compression are high • Efficiency losses are about 8-12 percentage points, with net efficiencies of about 35%

  17. SC-PCC with Carbon Capture by Oxyfuel Combustion • Oxyfuel combustion is the process of burning coal with a gas mixture that is mainly oxygen instead of just using air. • 95% oxygen and the rest is recycled flue gas • The exhaust consists primarily of CO2 and H2O  great for CCS • CO2 is captured by cooling and water condensation • Avoids costly CO2 gas separation but creates an additional cost for the pure O2 • Net efficiency are similar to that of the SC-PCC capture from Flue gas (approx. 35%) • Advantages: • About 75% less flue gas, leading to less heat being lost to the flue gas. • Suitable capture of CO2 for sequestration. • Less nitrogen oxide produced • Power Plants can be retrofit for this new process • Potentially lowers the cost for achieving a near net zero emissions from coal-based electricity generation http://www.ccsd.biz/factsheets/oxyfuel.cfm

  18. http://www.aep.com/investors/present/documents/Bernstein-June-14-2007.pdfhttp://www.aep.com/investors/present/documents/Bernstein-June-14-2007.pdf

  19. IGCC systems combine a coal gasification unit with a gas fired combined cycle power generation unit. Coal gasification: the process of converting coal to a gaseous fuel through partial oxidation. Carbon dioxide and Sulfur are removed The second part takes the cleaned gas and burns it in a conventional gas turbine to produce electrical energy Exhaust gas is recovered, used to boil water, creates steam for a steam turbine which also produces electrical energy. In typical plants, about 65% of the electrical energy is produced by the gas turbine and 35% by the steam turbine. 3 main basic types of coal gasifiers: Fluidised Bed, Fixed Bed, Entrained Flow IGCC Plants:Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle • http://www.ccsd.biz/factsheets/igcc.cfm

  20. IGCC continued…. Advantages: • achieves up to 50% thermal efficiency. • It uses 20-50% less water than a conventional coal power station. • It can utilize a variety of fuels, like heavy oils, petroleum cokes, and coals. • Up to 100% of the carbon dioxide can be captured and used for sequestrations • carbon capture is easier and costs less than capture from a pulverized coal plant • A minimum of 95% of the sulfur is removed • Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions are below 50ppm. • Syngas produced can be burned in a gas turbine for electricity generation, or used as a fuel in other applications, such as hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles • http://www.ccsd.biz/factsheets/igcc.cfm

  21. IGCC Capture process • The Syngas is sent to a shift reactor to convert CO into CO2 and further Hydrogen (H2). • The process produces highly concentrated CO2 that is removable by physical absorbents • H2 is then burned in a gas turbine (Hydrogen turbine needs more R&D) • Another way: Oxyfuel Combustion with an IGCC plant to obtain CO2 for capture and storage. • Possibly cheaper than post-combustion in SC-PCC plants • But IGCC plants themselves are more expensive to build than SC-PCC plants

  22. CO2 Separation from Natural Gas • Pre-Combustion:Natural gas is converted into H2 and CO2 and the H2 is used for power generation and the CO2 is removed for storage. • Post-Combustion: more difficult • This is because the CO2 concentration in the flue gas is lower (3-4%) • CO2 chemical absorption from NGCC flue gas is still done though • Plant efficiency is about 48-50% • Done in Norway and the UK

  23. Finally Sequestration (Storage) • Storage of CO2 in the Earth and there are MANY ways to do this! • Terrestrial : carbon is stored in land biomass (e.g. forests) or soils • Ex: Soil management practices increase the amount of carbon a soil can take up • Relatively low costs today in certain regions • Disadvantages: small potential reservoirs involved, difficulties in monitoring and verification, not clear how long carbon can be effectively stored • Ocean : multiple approaches • Increasing marine productivity in nutrient-limited regions • Direct injection and storage of CO2 as a liquid phase on the sea floor • Largest potential for storage and long time scales • Concerns: potential impact on marine ecosystems and ocean acidification, CO2 eventual return to atmosphere

  24. Geological Sequestration • Saline Aquifers: bodies of porous, permeable rock that hold brines. • Could be largest reservoirs: potential to hold 100- 1,000 Gtons of C • Capacity in the US is large but incompletely mapped • Projects: Aquifers at Statoil’s Sleipner fields in the North Sea. • CO2 is injected, at a supercritical phase into subsurface reservoirs 5 types of reservoirs • Oil Shales: would be used for enhanced oil shale recovery using adsorption processes similar to those processes for coal.Still very uncertain: oil shales are very complex • Needs a lot of experiments to be sure of the capacity. • Sealing: uses a cap rock, an impermeable rock layer that overlies a reservoir, to keep in the CO2. Poor seal, then CO2 will ultimately leak out. • Strength and composition of the seal rock under different • injection pressures is very important. • Permeable faults and stratigraphic bodies may compromise the seal rock locally. • Experience and research needed.

  25. An illustration of how carbon dioxide is buried in a saline aquifer beneath the Sleipner West natural gas field in the North Sea. Photo courtesy of Statoil. Demonstrating Carbon Sequestration Article Geotimes.org March 2003

  26. Geological Sequestration cont… • Depleted Oil and Gas Fields: CO2 displaces pore fluids when injected into the depleted fields. Here hydrocarbons interact among the rock, brine and gas, mixing the CO2 with the oil causing its volume to expand. Some of the oil remains, sequestering much of the CO2 that dissolved in the oil, while the rest is recovered a.k.a. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) • Has been used for 25 yrs in the US and Canada. • Lifetimes of many depleted fields could be significantly extended • Problems: Brine acidification, Brine chemistry confusion could affect mineral precipitation, dissolution, and brine salinity and pH. • Significant research and industrial experience is needed KEY: provides an incentive to store CO2 since it’s economically beneficial Places from Canada (Weyburn Oil Fields) to Algeria have been exploring EOR.

  27. Geological continued… • Deep coal seams: A lot of coal is unmineable and has a seem around 2,500 ft deep. • At this level, temps, and pressures, the CO2 adsorbs onto organic mineral surfaces and releases methane. This is enhanced Coal Bed Methane. • Has potential to hold 220 billion tons of CO2. • Injecting Nitrogen is also a possibility and has been tested in San Juan with BP (a mixture of both might be best!) • Current Place: Allison Field development, New Mexico. • This also provides more of an incentive to store CO2. • Problems: More work is needed to understand how coal petrology affects the adsorption and release of gases. Difficult to see capacity.

  28. Advanced Concepts • Metal-organic framework compounds: “metal sponges”: honeycomb structures of metal and organic molecules that trap CO2 in their pore spaces, it’s being researched at U of Michigan • Genetic engineering: altering marine creatures to incorporate more carbon into shells or modifying methane-producing bacteria to grab more CO2 as their “food”. • “Making Rocks”: CO2 (slightly acidic) reacts with rocks and soils and converts into other chemical forms. Process naturally takes to long! • Use magnesium silicates (rocks that include serpentine and olivine). • Magnesium silicate and CO2 together form carbonates and silicate such as sand. • Process is exothermic (producing heat). • Problem: Time. Magnesium silicate rocks reacting with only CO2 is a slow process. A stronger acid and heat are needed. • New Power Plants are needed: The Ohio group is working on a high-pressure, high-temp, 3-phase fluidized bed reactor (uses acids to dissolve serpentine in liquid CO2).

  29. Advantages and Disadvantages of CCS • Disadvantages: • Risk of increasing Ocean Acidification and affecting Marine Ecosystems • Emissions of air pollutants increase due to energy used to capture CO2 • Leakage Issues (monitoring, and estimating life-time) • Cost • Lots of needed capital investment • No regulatory framework created yet • Advantages: • Reduction of CO2 emissions by up to 90% • Oxyfuel process can significantly reduce NOx, Sox and PM

  30. http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/srccs/SRCCS_Chapter9.pdf

  31. Costs and Outlook for CCS • Costs: • Capture from combustion is more expensive and energy consuming than from Natural Gas Wells • Initial building costs for CCS power plants range from $.5 to 1 billion • CCS in power plants range from $30 to 90 to 160/ton of CO2 depending on technology. • Costs Include: capture, transportation and storage and monitoring  varies greatly from technique to technique • EOR can off set some of these costs • Projected to fall below $25/tCO2 by 2030 • Potential: • May contribute 20% to 30% of the effort to reduce global emissions by 2050 • Retrofitting existing plants for CCS already in progress • CCS use in biomass-fuelled power plants (net zero CO2) • Storage potential in geological formations of at least 2000 GtCO2 which is equal to some 80 years of current global emissions

  32. Other ways to offset CO2 emissions • Cogeneration: putting energy to use that would otherwise go to waste. • Ex: Lumber Mill using waste products like steam to do other work, like run a steam turbine to create electricity. • An energy two-for-one! • Material Substitution: trying to make common materials using less energy-intensive processes or materials. • Changing all the lightbulbs in traffic lights  incandescent bulbs with LED • Transportation Efficiency: Transportation accounts for almost one-third of all our energy use. There are many things we can do to decrease these emissions. • http://www.carboncounter.org/offset-your-emissions/personal-calculator.aspx • Calculate how much CO2 you emit!

  33. Truck Stop Electrification • Project Type: Transportation Efficiency, 15 year lifetime, starting 2005 • Offsets: 90,000 tons CO2: similar to taking 16,000 cars off the road for 1 yr. • Location: Oregon and Washington. • Description: Every night truckers idle their diesel engines while they rest to power things like air conditioning or heat, and other appliances for their sleeper cabs. This idling causes wear on the machinery and also emits harmful pollutants • Shurepower’s shore-power truck electrified parking (STEP) system is a low cost alternative to idling that provides: • grid-based electricity, cable television and Internet connections to enable drivers to shut down their engines. • This option is cheaper than paying the for diesel fuel for an idle engine • Non-GHG Benefits • Reducing engine idling cleans the air • Saves fossil fuel while saving truckers money • Truckers sleep better without noise of engines • Noise pollution is reduced for neighboring communities. http://www.climatetrust.org/offset_truckstop.php

  34. Cool Climate Concrete • Project Type:Material Substitution, 5 year lifetime, starting Oct. 2004 • Offsets:250,000 tons CO2 like taking 49,801 cars off the road for 1 year • Location:Nation-wide • Description:Encourages the use of blended cement. • Manufacturing conventional cement releases about one ton of CO2 for every ton produced. • blended cement uses byproducts to replace parts of conventional cement: reduces carbon intensity while keeping structural integrity. • Reducing CO2: Manufacturing of cement creates GHG’s when: 1) The cement kiln burns fossil fuels to make clinker and 2) the calcination process of cement clinker production. • Offsets occur at the point of blending • Accepted Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs): ground granulated blast furnace slag, flyash, silica fume and rice hull ash. http://www.climatetrust.org/offset_concrete.php

  35. Ecuadorian Rainforest Restoration • Project Type: Sequestration • Offsets: 58,890 tons of CO2 similar to taking 11,731 cars off the road for 1 yr. • Project Lifetime: 99 years started March 2002 in Ecuador • Project Partners: • Jatun Sacha Foundation • Conservation International Project Description: Less than 2% of Ecuador’s coastal rainforests remains so Conservation International and Jatun Sacha Foundation are reforesting about 680 acres of the coastal rainforest in Ecuador that will hopefully capture 65,000 tons of CO2 over the next century. • Reducing CO2: This project will restore and protect the land and allow it to grow back to old growth forest. • Deforestation currently accounts for between 20 and 25 percent of annual human-induced CO2 emissions. * This location is one of Conservation International’s top five conservation targets worldwide and is one of the most biologically diverse areas on Earth!

  36. What can you do?! • Set thermostat a degree higher for air-conditioning and a degree lower for heating or turn it down when you are not there/away • If every home in the US turned the dial we could save more than $10 billion per year on energy costs. • Replace your light bulbs when they die with Compact Fluorescent bulbs • For each 27 watt compact fluorescent light bulb you’ll get carbon emission savings of 140 pounds per year and save $12.00 • Wash clothes in warm and cold water: • this will save 90% over the energy used when machine washing in hot water only. • Fuel Efficient Cars: tires help too… • Keeping your tires fully inflated could improve your gas mileage by around 3%. The average American who drives 12,000 miles per year could save about 16 gallons of gasoline annually just by maintaining the tires.

  37. What can you do…continued • Unplug your TV: • between 10%-15% of a TV’s energy is still used when its powered “off”. If every home unplugged their TV sets when they weren’t being used, we’d save more than $1 billion per year in energy costs. • Conserve water by taking shorter showers, and turning off the tap while brushing your teeth: • Brushing teeth: you’ll conserve up to 5 gallons a day • Showers: every two min. you save, you can conserve more than 10 gallons of water. If everyone in the US saves 1 gallon each day, over a year, it would equal TWICE the amount of freshwater withdrawn from the great lakes everyday! • Buy rechargeable batteries: • A single rechargeable batter can replace up to 1,000 single use alkaline ones • In Hotels re-use your towels and sheets: • The average hotel room consumes more than 200 gallons of water per day. Trimming the amount of water used they could save up to 40% of the a hotel’s water use. • Use Energy Start appliances • Plant a tree! • SOURCE: The Green Book by Elizabeth Rogers and Thomas M. Kostigen

  38. Works Cited • http://www.portlandonline.com/osd/ • http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html • http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.html • www.ecoaction.gc.ca • http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/ghg_home_e.cfm • http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/ghg_home_e.cfm • http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/education/scienceofclimatechange/understanding/greenhouse_gases/index_e.html • http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&xml=FA0FF2F3-E389-483B-8D37-88EC993E5188 • http://www2.nrcan.gc.ca/ES/OERD/english/View.asp?x=1324 • http://www2.nrcan.gc.ca/ES/OERD/english/View.asp?x=1603 • www.geotimes.org : S. Julio Friedmann, and geotimes staff • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_sink • http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/srccs/SRCCS_Chapter9.pdf • http://www.iea.org/Textbase/techno/essentials1.pdf • http://www.iea.org/Textbase/techno/iaresults.asp?id_ia=16 • http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/ • http://iea-ccs.fossil.energy.gov/ • http://www.ccsd.biz/factsheets/oxyfuel.cfm • US Greenhouse Gas Abatement Mapping Initiative Executive Report Dec. 2007 (Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How much at what cost? McKinsey & Company) • The Green Book by Elizabeth Rogers and Thomas M. Kostigen

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