The French Revolution

The French Revolution Importance Brought the People to the forefront of politics Set the model for later revolutions Changed the political map of Europe forever. Chronology - Sketch of Events 1788-89 French State undergoes a massive revolution in politics but also in society and the way people think. Calling of the Estates General in 1789 was the catalyst for the Revolution. 1789-1792 - Liberal Revolution 1792-1794 - Radicalization 795-1799 - Ineffective Reaction 1799-1815 - Napoleon

Louis XV 1715-74 • Succeeded at age 5. • Poorly educated and spent a life devoted to his mistresses. • Nobles began to regain some of the power they had lost to Louis XIV under the regency of the Duc D'Orleans, • Nobles proved incapable of governing. • In the Parlements nobles continued to struggle with the monarchy until the Revolution, a struggle that seriously weakened it. • Madame de Pompadour 1721-64 - for 20 years exercised her political intelligence for Louis XV. • Madame du Barry - just as ambitious, less clever

Louis XVI 1774-1792 • Virtuous - but uninterested in government. [In his Diary July 14, 1789, he wrote: "Nothing", he meant he caught nothing hunting that day.] • Initially restored the parlements to gain popularity • Married to Marie Antoinette who was extremely unpopular • Lived at Versailles, isolating the royal family from the population of Paris

The Crisis of the French Monarchy • From close of 7 Yrs War(1763) until French Rev., European monarchies didn’t have enough revenue • Became agents of institutional and political change • Provoked aristocratic, sometimes popular, resentment/resistance, led to chaos • George III of Britain fought w/Parliament, lost North American colonies • Frederick II of Prussia needed aristocratic influence on army/bureaucracy • Joseph II of Austria didn’t consult w/nobility, left them in turmoil • French monarchy emerged from 7 Yrs War defeated/in debt • Supported American revolt against Great Britain • Interest was ½ of royal budget • Had debt, but was unable to tap wealth of French nation through taxes

Intellectual Causes • The Enlightenment: scientific and philosophical thought had spread around Europe in the 18th Century - much larger intellectual class with the political ideas. • Liberalism was popular. • Liberty - Human Rights/Natural Rights. • Sovereignty of the people. • Equality - meant equal rights for all under the Law. • Liberals also wanted freedom from a state-controlled economy. • Property was seen as sacred. These were middle class property owners by and large.

Social Causes Problem of the Estates System • First Estate: The Clergy • 1% of pop, with 10% of land. • Had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a tax on the peasantry, the tithe, which generally went to some remote bishop or monastery rather than the local parish priest. • First Estate -100,000 strong • many poor clergymen • Second Estate: The Nobility • 2-5% of pop, with 20% of the land. • Great wealth and taxed the peasantry: • "feudal" resurgence in 18th century. 400,000 people. • Great division among the Nobility was between the Noblesse d'epee and the Noblesse de Robe: later nobles whose titles came from their possession of public offices.

Third Estate- Everyone Else • 95-97% of the pop. • Class Divisions • Bourgeoisie • 8% of the pop, about 2.3 Million people, with 20% of Land. • Often bought land and exploited the peasants on it. • Most important group politically was the Bourgeoisie, and by 1788 it was very important . • Had been growing throughout the century, to some extent encouraged by the monarchy. • Well read, educated and rich. • Had no say in running the country. • The Urban Poor of Paris • Artisans - factory workers, journeymen. • very poor were probably less involved in politics. • Different interests than the bourgeoisie. • Most politicized group of poor people, possibly due to high literacy.

The Peasants • 40% of the land, formed the vast majority of population, perhaps 3,000,000 people added over the century. • Paid the most tax: aristocrats did not pay. • Paid the tithe to the clergy. • Gave labor service to the State and gave services to their Landlords: this is sometimes called `feudal' service. • Paid dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when they sold land that was in all other ways their own. Poverty was intense, but varied by region. • Farmed the land, and regard it as their own, • Not legally theirs. • Wanted to own their own property.

Political Causes - The Run-Up to 1789 • Successors to Louis XIV and The Weakening of Absolutism • Under Louis XIV flaws in theory of absolutism had been apparent: • Misuse of power, kings who couldn't rule. • Conflict with Parlements and Ruling Classes • Parlements were courts, not an assembly. • Power to register laws from King • 13 Parlements in all throughout France, but the Parlement of Paris was the most important. • They began to claim, a right of veto. • A King could always override Parlements with a lit de justice. • The Duc D'Orleans had actually given the Parlements a veto during his regency. • Parlements had been abolished by Rene Maupeau (1714-1792) in the 1770s under Louis XV. • Louis XVI revived them 1774, in an attempt to be popular • Fatal mistake, - Parlements became centers of resistance to the King. • Louis XVI's Government • Not an old fashioned ancient regime. • Some reforms, that lead people who dislike the French Revolution to think that things may have turned out very differently.

Monarchy seeks New Taxes • Economic Weakness • Revocation of Edict of Nantes1685 had struck a blow at French commerce. • The Economy tottered for the next hundred years. • Financially the origins of the Revolution go back to Louis XIV {but not because of the cost of Versailles]. • Taxation Problems • Richest were not taxed: i.e. the Nobles and Clergy. • Taxes were indirect on poorest part of population. • the taille on peasant produce • the Gabelle - on salt • various trade tariffs • Not enough income for the government to do its job. • These taxes increased. a 28% increase in some parts of country in Louis XVI's reign alone- affected the poor the worst. • Dependence on loans • Banking system was not able to cope with the fiscal problems. • Need for King to raise taxes that led to the calling of the Estates General.

New taxes cont. . . Cost of Mid Century Wars • The Seven Years War 1756-63 cost a lot. • The American Revolution: France had more or less paid for the American War. • The Cost of Versailles and the Royal household etc.Was NOT a big factor by the end of century - it used about 5% of revenue. • Bankruptcy of the State. • By 1780s the government was nearly bankrupt. • Half of government income was going on paying debts (annual deficit 126 Million Livres.)(debt was almost 4 Billion Livres). • The problem was the government could not service the debt. • Several ministers did try to put it back on a sound basis. • France was not after all a poor country.

Necker’s Report • Jacques Necker 1732-1802 • Louis XVI financial director • Hid the real problems, made the economy sound better than reality • Large portion of $ went to aristocrats • made it difficult for later ministers to explain why higher taxes were needed.

Events Leading to Calling of Estates General • Began as an aristocratic attempt to get more power from the king. • 1783: Charles Alexander de Calonne 1732-1802, • Raised loans to pay debts. • By 1786 he did not think Parlements would approve another loan. • Louis XVI and Calonne had an economic reform plan to tax landed property. • Based on provincial assemblies and allowed no evasion by nobles. • Opposition • Opposed by the noblesse de Robe in the Parlements - they just did not want to be taxed.

Assembly of Notables 1787 • An "Assembly of Notables" was called to outflank the parlements. • Not the same as Estates General. • Notables criticized Calonne's plans and demanded a greater role for the aristocracy in government. • Said the government had no right to demand new taxes, and that an Estates General (last called 1614) must be called again. • King was forced to dismiss Calonne • Parlements had felt threatened by the calling of the Assembly of Notables • A way to get round the objections and blocks that the Parlements had been raising. • Parlements had also demanded an Estates General. • New minister Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne (1727-1794) • Archbishop of Toulouse • Spent a year trying to get the Parlements to accept change without an Estates General.

1788 Coup d'etat of ParlementsDeadlock • Parlement of Paris rejects Kings attempts to force change, so King abolishes Parlements. • King said registration of laws now to be in a plenary court for the whole of France. • Anarchy/revolts throughout France. This forced the calling of an Estates General. • E.G. was called as a response to nobles' rejection of a modernization plan.

The Calling of the Estates General • Representative body of the Three Estates was the Estates-General. • Called in July 1788 (last met 1614), to meet in 1789. This was the crucial step: the end of absolutism • Parlements were recalled and asked on how the Estates General should be run • Said it should be done in the same way as in 1614. • This disgusted the Third estate, who would only have 1/3 of votes. • Royal Council - Dec 1788 - said Third Estate would twice as many reps as the other two. • Catalyst for a lot of political excitement.

Political Developments in Fall 1788- Spring 1789 • Rapid discussion of ideas, more radical than anything in the Enlightenment. • The weeks after 25th Sept 1788 saw most radical change of all. • The most famous pamphlet was by the Abbé Sieyes 1748-1835- "What is the Third Estate?" • -Everything • -What has it been until Now? – Nothing • -What does it ask? - to become something • Nobles faced a real and new revolution which would sweep it away.

Cahiers des Doleances • A national survey of people' opinions was compiled between the calling of the Estates General and its assembly. • Objections to current system from Parish of St.Vaast, March 1789 • Lettres de Cachet (i.e. wanted due process) • Nation should agree to its own taxes • E.G. every 4 years (i.e. objected to no consultation) • Taxes equally on all classes, inc. Nobles and clergy • Third estates to have justices in the Parlements • NO call for a republic in any Cahier But some reports of peasants already believing that they were free of manorial dues. • The Estates General Meets May 5th 1789 • Third Estate probably ready to strengthen hand of King vs. nobles and clergy • Background of rising bread prices from 1788-89 - people in Paris being radicalized by this at just the right moment

The Liberal Revolution • The Estates General May 1789 - July 1789 • King still in Charge • Estates General met May 5 1789 at Versailles • Third Estate had twice as many Reps (agreed in Dec) • Its reps were largely lawyers and Govt officials • Still disputes over voting - e.g. should all estates meet together or separately. • Third Estate kept being slighted - it refused to sit alone • Other Estates invited to join with it on June 1st. • Events • Third Estate Declares itself National Assembly June 17th • Tennis Court Oath June 20th 1789 • King opposed it but majority of the clergy some nobles joined it. • June 27th the King capitulated. • National assembly takes name NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY • National Constituent Assembly July 1789 - 1791 • Nominal Absolute Monarchy • State Church with Priests paid by State • CREATES A LIBERAL REVOLUTION

King's Fatal Decision • Louis tried to re-assert his authority - with an army near Versailles - 18,000 troops-Marie Antoinette advised him to attack it. • King acts stupidly - tries to undermine NAT. Assembly but not effectively • creates anxiety amongst its supporters - • Abandoned the bourgeoisie and supported the nobility • To revolt against the nobility the 3rd Estate also had to revolt against the King. Two Mass Uprisings of the Masses saved the Nat. Assembly • Revolt of the Poor of Paris • Rising bread prices 1788-89 - riots already in the spring of 1789 • Paris politicized by the elections to the E.G. - had continued to meet after elections. • Paris mob storms the Bastille - JULY 14 1789 • Basically a prison, but not used very much by 1789 • Raided to find weapons for revolutionary militias growing up in Paris • troops fired into crowd, killing 98 - crowd storms fortress - kills troops • Symbolic importance: First re-direction of the Revolution by pop of Paris • Caused similar disturbances in other cities • Militias take name NATIONAL GUARD - led by Lafayette • Take Tricolor as flag (Blue and red for Paris, white for the bourbon king)

Revolt of the Peasants - revolts from Spring 1789 • In July - Massive revolts throughout France • The Great Fear • fear of royal troops • Destruction of many medieval documents • Forced the National Assembly to abolish "feudal" duesAugust 4th 1789 • Peasantry had a very quite and almost conservative role - it had what it wanted - LAND. • Economic conditions had made the Revolution take on such vast proportions. • Ideological Actions of the National Constituent Assembly • August 4th Laws • All French now subject to the same laws. • Abolished the "feudal regime" + Tithes + hunting rights + venal offices • Peasants supposed to pay compensation

Declaration of the Rights of Man - August 27th 1789 • Printed in 1000s of leaflets and distributed around France.IMPORTANCE OF PROPAGANDA • Ideals • equality before the law • due process (art 7) • natural rights - liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression (art 2) • sovereignty resides in the Nation (art 3) • law is an expression of the General Will (art.6) • freedom of religion (art 10) [Jews as well, for 1st time) • free speech (art 11) • separation of powers (art 16) • Enlightenment ideas + American declarations of rights (e.g. Virginia in 1776) • King and Government Move to Paris - October 6th • Forced by the Poor Women of Paris • Made government function under threat of mob violence • France was now to peaceful for almost 3 years

Reconstruction of France National Constituent Assembly • Faced massive problems of control and state debt • Administration - the Reforming of France • Provinces replaced by 83 Departments • Same sort of courts and laws applied throughout France. • Economic Liberalism • Gets rid of tariffs - unlimited economic freedom • Suppresses guilds and forbids workers associations • The State Debt • Solution was to attack the Church -nationalization of Church lands • Made the Revolution unpopular in many quarters. • Emigrés begin to leave • Split between anticlericals and pro-clericals has been at center of French life ever since. • Printed bonds - assignats based on value of Church land - became used as money. • The Church: Civil Constitution of the Clergy July 1790 • Made bishoprics same as departments • Priests and bishops to be elected + paid by state (anyone could vote - including atheists • Church seen as part of the state - i.e. no separation of Church and State) • Religious orders were abolished. • Assembly required an oath from the clergy - to oppose the pope - only half did so + 7 bishops • Pope condemned the Revolution,liberalism, & the Rights of Man • Began attack on liberalism for next century.

Constitution of 1791 • Purpose of the National Constituent Assembly • One Chamber House • Only men paying tax could vote • Olmpe de Gouge wrote against this policy • Only 50,000 would qualify to be electedi.e. less than the number of the nobility • Members of National Assembly not eligible for election.

Counterrevolutionary Activities • King's Actions Destabilize the Liberal Revolution • King was becoming more and more impotent. • June 20 1791 - Louis XVI tried to flee, but was stopped at Varennes and brought back June 24 a virtual prisoner. • Attitude of the King made the constitutional monarchy of the 1791 Constitution impossible to work. • No strong executive provided for apart from the King's ministers.

Reaction to Revolution Abroad Intellectuals • Most Intellectuals and philosophes praised it: • Adam Smith, Thomas Paine, Beethoven Conservatives opposed it • Edmund Burke - Reflections on the French Revolution 1790 (i.e. before the Terror). • Good government is going to come about through long experience and should not be overthrown • Government is complicated and simple schemes can never be satisfactory- • Longing for how things were that goes with all conservatism The Revolution also upset other monarchs • Not unhappy to see France weakened. • Dd not want revolution to spread - • End of Enlightened Despotism. There were attempts all over Europe to stop reform movements

The Wars Begin • 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz August 27 • threatens invasion by Austria and Prussia • not really a threat as GB would not join in • War Period - Begins April 1792 • Beginning of a long period of war which forms a background to everything for the next 30 or so years. • In retaliation to Dec. of Pillnitz the French Deputies (in Assembly) declare war on Austria - 20th Apr 1792 • Pressure from democratic exiles from other countries • Radicals thought a successful War would bring them support. • Louis XVI supported the war - he hoped a loss would restore his position • Robespierre opposed the war as he saw danger of defeat • French armies were soon retreating • Caused radicalization at Home.

A Second Radical Revolution • Political Infighting in the Legislative Assembly • Idea of left and Right - origins in the meetings of the Legislative Assembly. • Different Factions • Monarchists - inc. Lafayette • The Jacobins • a sort of elitist political clubwanted a republic • met in a Dominican priory (Jacobin a name for OPs) • One group of Jacobins • known as Girondists assumed leadership • First led by Jacque-Pierre Brissot 1754-93. sometimes known as Brissotins) • April 20 1792 -declared war on Austria thinking that it would bring most radical revolutionaries to power.

The Second Revolution • The Revolution became much more radical in 1792. • Losses in the war radicalized the pop of Paris and the rest of France. • The War, the Monarchy and the Press • The Prussian Army pushed into France as far as Verdun – • July - the Duke of Brunswick issued a threat to Paris if the King was hurt. • Girondists blamed the monarchy and Marie Antoinette for secret intrigues and this put the monarchical constitution under strain. • Absolute freedom of the press • Campaign of denunciation vs. the government • Marat and his Ami du Peuple was prominent as a radical here. • Process of Radicalization • Popular agitation was transformed into something powerful by two factors. • arrival of volunteer National Guardsmen from all over France in July (8th) • political organization of Paris into a Commune and 48 Sections - all centers of insurrection.

Second Revolution Events • August 10th 1792 Attack on Tuileries Palace • People of Paris + Vol attack the Tuileries Palace • King had to take refuge with the Legislative Assembly. • Deserted his Swiss Guard - 800+ killed. • September 1792 September Massacres • 1200 prisoners are murdered in Paris jails as counter-revolutionaries. • The Sans-Culottes • Paris artisans, shopkeepers, wage earners and factory workers. • Name comes from the fact they wore long trousers not the knee breeches (culottes) favored by the middle and professional classes. • Wanted immediate relief from hunger, • Resented all social inequality, • Suspicious of representative government. • Opposed the unregulated economy so beloved of all the m/c revolutionaries, including the Jacobins. • Compelled the Legislative Assembly to agree to call a new assembly to write new democratic constitution - to be called the Convention.

Tulleries Palacedestroyed in 1871

The Rule of the Convention - 1792-95 • Creation • Elected by universal male suffrage • Only 7 1/2% of electorate voted. (not best atmosphere for a free election) • First met September 21 1792 and declares France a Republic as its first act • Girondists were still major voice but gradually lost control over next few months to another group of Jacobins known as The Mountain • Prepared to work with the Sans-Cullottes. • Maximilien Robespierre one of leaders. • Political groups here were • the Girondists [or Brissotins] (name from region deputies supposed to have come from) • the Mountain, (name from their seats high in the Assembly Hall) • the Marais - the plain.(name from their seats low in the Assembly Hall) • 9 months of political struggle in the Convention.

Fighting the War • War with Austria and Prussia which had radicalized the revolution was still going on. • Revolution was saved by the slowness and weakness of Prussian and Austrian preparation • Could certainly have won at first. Too busy in the East digesting Poland. • Major Events • August 1792 - LaFayette defects to Austrians sees no point in fighting monarchist cause in France. • 20th September 1792 - Battle of Valmy - Valmy was the effective start of the French Revolutionary Wars • November 1792 • Convention offers to help all revolutionary groups in Europe. • Dec 15 1792 • The Convention abolishes feudalism in occupied territory - beginning of restructuring of Europe. • Feb 1 1793 - growing Anglophobia reflected in declaration of war vs. England and Netherlands, by March Spain was also dec. an enemy. • March 1793 - By now France was at War with all of Europe • April 1793 - Dumouriez defects to Austria - aware he could not restore monarchy in France.

Domestic Politics In the Convention • Condemnation and Execution of the King • The Mountain had found Louis XVI's correspondence to Austria. • Condemnation of King also put Girondists in a bind • If they supported it they lost moderate support, if they opposed it they lost patriot support. • Robespierre saw this. • The King was tried as Citizen Capet - [should have been Bourbon.] • Vote to Condemn – • No one thought Louis was innocent. • King executed 21 Jan 1793

Counter Counter-Revolutionary Activity • March 1793 • Counter-revolts going on esp. in conservative Catholic areas, especially in the Vendee. • Great concern in the Convention, still under Girondist control, about counter revolution. • it strengthened laws against émigrés. • Revolutionary Tribunals were set up • A decree was passed condemning to death all rebels taken in the act. • March 21 1793 - Watch Committees set up in every area

Committee of Public Safety • 6th April 1793 • Set up to supervise, for Convention, the executive. • Given its own funds • 100,000 livres to pay agents • 100,000 livre for secret purposes • At first middle men were elected - Jacque Danton (1759-1794) • Committee of General Security • Set up to fight the War abroad.

The Mountain Takes Over • Population of Paris was still not happy • Inflation due to war + paper money. • Made use of by the Mountain - whose main difference with the Girondists was that they would work with the mob. • May/June 2 1793 New insurrection • Mob demanded the expulsion of the Girondist members. • The Mountain seizes control in the Convention. • They passed a new Democratic Constitution - June 22 • On hold until the war was over. • Appointed a new Committee of Public Safety- June 1793 • This body was to rule France for the next year.

from the Mountain Herault de Sechelles - a noble Jeanbon Saint-Andre - Protestant pastor Saint Just - wanted a Spartan state Couthon - a follower of Robespierre Prieur, of the Marne from the Marais Barere de Viezac Robert Lindet added in July Maximilien Robespierre (1753-1794)Not a dictator - a lawyer from Arras – Principles were everything, Men nothing. Influenced by Rousseau and his ideas on virtue. added in August Lazare Carnot (1753-1823) - in charge of military Prieur, of the Cote d'Or added in September Billaud-Varrenne Collot d'Herbois - the only mob orator -both were known as men of blood The Rule of the Committee for Public Safety July 1793-July 1794 A ruthless and effective government – Convention and ministers official government, but CPS had all power.

Problems Facing the Committee for Public Safety • Counter revolt and the war with Europe • i.e. same as before June takeover • Dealt with the war - by military effectiveness and the internal revolt with the terror • Aimed to restructure society in the most revolutionary manner • National mission against evil inside and outside France.

Total War • CPS dealt with military threat by use of total war • Whole country was put on a war footing (cf. small ancien regime armies) • Carnot led the effort • 23 August 1793 the levee en masse • Conscripted males into the army • Planned economy to supply the war + to aid the poor and keep their support. • September 17 Maximum price rules established. • Assignats stopped falling in value in year of CPS control. • By Spring 1794 an Army of 800,000 • Largest ever assembled, until then, by European power. • Citizen army, fighting for ideals, as opposed to its opposing armies, made up of serfs.

The Reign of Terror or the Republic of Virtue • Revolts around France • July 13 1793 Marat, a radical killed by Charlotte Corday - made revolutionaries feel threatened. • Height of Terror from Fall 1793 to July 1794 • Marie-Antoinette + Royal Family, • Aristocrats • Girondists, • 1794 moves to provinces and includes peasants and sans-cullottes, then in Spring 1794 even includes republicans like Danton • CPS also opposing even more extreme groups from among sans-cullotes • known as Hebertists • June 10 - Law of 22 Prairal • conviction without evidence was now allowed • Large increase in numbers killed in last month of Terror. • Terror fiercest in those areas of rebellion + Paris circa. 25,000-40,000 killed/300,000 arrested - It was intentional,

The New Culture • Fashions • Followed Roman and/or sans-cullotish style. • New Calendar • Convention began dating form Year One when it abolished the Monarchy. • A system of new months adopted on November 10th 1793Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor, Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire, Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose, Germinal, Floreal, Prairal • Beginning from Sept 22, 1792, Day after monarchy abolished. • Every 10th day as rest day (not good for workers) • Aim was to blot out the cycle of Sundays and Saint's days • It was part of dechristianisation effort.

New Religion Revolution had been anti-clerical from the start • November 1793 • The Convention outlawed the worship of God • Notre Dame made a Temple to Reason • ceremonies were conducted by the Commune of Paris. • November 10 Cult of Reason begun • Alienated Christians Made direct efforts to close Churches throughout France. • [Dechristianisation opposed by Robespierre • Toleration of Catholics was ordered by CPS under his orders. • Robespierre thought this not sufficient as effective religion. • May 7 1794 Cult of the Supreme Being proclaimed • Deism + cultic festivals celebrating republican virtues - humanity, liberty etc. • June 8 Robespierre leads a massive public Festival of Supreme Being. • Emphasizesthe attempt to restructure the whole civilization.

Reaction and the Rise of Napoleon • The Thermidorean Reaction (1795-1799) • The Reign of Terror • Was not popular in the long run • It was genuinely terrifying - it got out of hand and malicious accusations were made • episode of the rafts at Nantes and 2000 killed • Politicians feared for their own heads when Robespierre made a threatening speech on July 26th • Robespierre • Condemned to the Guillotine in the Convention • 9th of Thermidor (July 27th 1794) • executed July 28th 1794

The New Government - The Directory • The Directory • The Directory was a 5 man executive body • Aim was to avoid dictatorship and excessive democracy. • Four-year period of lack of strong government and a series of coup d'etats. • People in control were again rich bourgeois liberals • Girondist deputies allowed to take seats • Paris Commune outlawed • Law of 22 Prairal revoked • People involved in the Terror were now attacked • the White Terroreconomic liberalism revived + inflation • A frivolous culture came into being • fashions etc. Salons re-opened • There was also a revival of Catholicism • Cult of reason and the new calendar were kept.

1795 August 22 - Constitution of the Year III • First formally constituted Republic. • property and wealth, not birth were now important. • Peasants now were a major landowning group in society. • Sans-cullottes were removed from political life. • Riots by the poor were now put down • October 1795 - a Paris mob was put down. • Napoleon commanded the cannon. • Poor had been victims of the Terror so some loss of fervor for revolution.

Political pressures on the Directory • Pressure from the left, from old Jacobins + there were food riots. • Strong movements to have the Monarchy restored • Monarchists won a majority in the election of 1797 • Directory staged a coup against them, supported by Napoleon • Problem for Monarchists was when Louis (XVII), the son of Louis XVI died. • New legitimate heir wanted to restore the 1789 constitution • Not acceptable to the Peasants, the moderate Middle Class, orto Napoleon. • To keep control Directory increasingly depended on the Army - opens way to Napoleon.

Expansion and Empire • The Military expansion begun under the convention continued, with help of CPS's war economy - great new generals had been brought to the fore in eight of Napoleons marshals. • March 1795 - Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war continued with GB and Austria. • Directory dependent on the military for stability

Military Successes under the Directory • Under the Directory • Military expansion begun under the convention continued • with help of CPS's war economy - great new generals had been brought to the fore - inc. 8 of Napoleons future marshals - as old officer class went into exile. • March 1795 • Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war continued with GB and Austria. • Directory was dependent on the military for stability at home and success abroad. • One of most successful Generals was Napoleon. • First Triumph in defending Toulon in 1793 • He appealed to many, disgusted with the Directory, who looked for authority from above.

Summing Up the French Revolution Three Periods • Liberal Revolution 1789-1792 • Estates General - Nat. Assem. - Nat. Const. Assem - -Legislative Assembly • Radical Revolution 1792-1794 • The Convention - + Comm. Pub. Safety • Thermidorean Reaction 1794-1799 • The Directory Achievements of French Revolution • Liberal Rev • end of Feudalism • Made the people important in politics • The old order was never re-established • Radical Rev. • National army, Idea of a Nation at war • Metric system (Convention) + Abolishes Slavery in Colonies (Nap. rescinds) • In General • In idea of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity- leads to nationalism • Problems of French Revolution • It did not produce a stable government • The Reign of Terror • Rad. Rev - led to ideas of totalitarian democracy

The French Revolution