This document is for discussion purposes only and is not a statement of Government policy

1. Young People in EnglandAn evidence discussion paperYoung People Analysis & Strategic AnalysisDepartment for Children, Schools and Families This document is for discussion purposes only and is not a statement of Government policy

2. Contents • Introduction • Context – Trends in Youth Development • Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions • Where Policy Intervenes • Principles from the Evidence

3. This is a review of adolescence in contemporary England, viewed through a developmental perspective. Introduction We will… Look at the demands from employers of new labour market entrants. Look at the expectations of society from new adults. What attributes do adolescents need to develop? Further… • We take stock of how adolescents develop the skills for adulthood, and explain the challenges they encounter. • We define the role of Government in supporting the development of young people. • We consider whether the fact that the lives of young people are changing rapidly matters for adolescent development, or has significant policy implications.

4. Structure of Report Introduction Trends As a starting point, we briefly review aspects of young people’s world that have undergone significant and relevant change. Drivers The main body of this report discusses the drivers of successful youth transitions into adulthood. What development is required to exploit opportunities? And which factors influence that development? And how do they operate? Role of Government We examine how government intervention impacts on different groups of young people in supporting making better transitions. Principles Principles and areas emerging from the evidence for possible future intervention.

5. Adolescence is not strictly defined by chronological age, but we can identify a number of stages and changes Introduction Stages Changes Pre-adolescence Age 9 to 13 Begins with the onset of puberty and is marked by the most rapid growth spurt. Physical Development in this stage is unrivalled by any other point in development except infancy. Puberty triggers a surge of growth and sex hormones. Middle adolescence Age 14 to 16 Brain Development The brain re-organises: some areas get less efficient, such as working memory, while others, such as recognising emotion, get stronger. The time when the need for independence becomes increasingly apparent. Adolescence is a distinct phase in the development of thinking skills. Thinking changes from concrete thinking (e.g. yes and no) to formal operations including abstraction and forming hypotheses. Intellectual Late adolescence Age 17 to 19 The time during which teenagers start to disengage with their families and begin to shift to economic and emotional independence. Psycho-social Adolescence is the stage when young people start developing personal identity; trying on different roles to work out who they are and how they fit within society. This can involve tensions within families as young people seek independence and a separate identity. Asmussen et al. (2007) Supporting parents of teenagers Blakemore S-J & Choudhury, S (2006) Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry

6. The role of Government in young people’s lives has to balance the needs of the individual, society and the economy Introduction There is no single “route” through adolescence, but it does needs correct pace in order to benefit society and the individual. • Too fast: young adults are less likely to have the skills needed to be self-sufficient sustainably. • Too slow: the financial burden on family and society may become excessive. The principle of self-responsibility is strong and Government has a critical role in promoting opportunity and information so that everyone can to do best for themselves. However, important inequalities amongst young people exist, and Government has an important role in targeting support to those with either fewer opportunities or inability to fully exploit them. Some activities of young people impact adversely on other members of society, such as anti-social behaviour. It is right for government to intervene to stop it; exactly as happens with other people.

7. Contents • Introduction • Context – Trends in Youth Development • Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions • Where Policy Intervenes • Principles from the Evidence

8. We briefly look at trends in some of the main changes that have occurred in the lives of young people and how they view life today. We do so under these headings: Demographic Learning Economic Social Technological ….Finally, we characterise the voice of young people

9. The demographic landscape for adolescents is changing Trends in Youth Development Demographic There are 3.3 million 15-19 year olds in England. From a recent high point, this number is currently falling and will continue to do so over the next 10 years, before bouncing back. The proportion of 15-19 year olds in the population will fall over the next decade from 1 in 16 to 1 in 19 - the lowest ever share. Minority ethnic groups are 14% of 15-19 year olds, compared with only 5% of over 50s. Population projections (England) Sources: ONS (2009) Population estimates by ethnic group, mid-2007 (experimental). GAD (2009) Population Projections 2008 estimates

10. More young people than ever are attaining in learning… Trends in Youth Development Learning Attainment at age 16 has risen steeply year-on-year for over the last 20 years since the introduction of GCSEs… …and by age 19 a further fifth of young people gain Level 2 and half gain Level 3 Trends in GCSE/O-level attainment 1963-2009 Attainment at 19 2004-08 GCSEs introduced DCSF Level 2 and 3 Attainment by Young People in England Measured Using Matched Administrative Data: Attainment by Age 19 in 2008 Source: GCSE and Equivalent Results in England, 2008/09 and DCSF time series

11. …however, despite progress over the last decade, social gradients persist in attainment… Trends in Youth Development Learning 1 in 5 young people in the poorest households gain 5 or more A*-C GCSEs (inc. English & Maths) compared to three quarters of those from the richest homes - a gap of over 50% pts. GCSE threshold attainment by parental income quintile GCSE average point scores by parental income quintile Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

12. …and in post-16 participation in learning. Trends in Youth Development Learning The proportion of 16 year olds participating in education and training is at the highest ever rate, though gaps between social groups persist… …although taking a longer view, the relationship between family income and staying on has decreased substantially over the years. Participation rate in FT Education at 16 by socio-grouping Relationship between family income and staying on in education post 16 across cohorts Clearly as we move to full participation with RPA, socio-economic differences in participation will disappear SEG NS-SEC Sources: Participation in Education, Training and Employment by 16-18 Year Olds in England SFR 12/2009; YCS cohorts 3 to 13 Gregg and Macmillan (2009) Family Income and Education in the Next Generation: Exploring the income gradients in education for the current cohorts of youth. CMPO Working Paper 09/223

13. Aggregate snap-shot statistics mask extensive diversity in the pathways young people follow post-GCSE. Trends in Youth Development Learning • 3 out of 5 young people continue in full-time education continuously to 18 or beyond. • The remaining 41% follow many routes post-16, often cycling between periods in learning, work (with or without training), unemployment and inactivity. ‘Return to education’ – 5% of young people who enrol in full time education at 17, having spent spells in a variety of activities at age 16. ‘Increasing job without training’ – 8% of young people spend most of their time in jobs without training, with some spending the first year NEET or other activities. ‘Education to job without training’ – 5% of young people who stay in full time education in the first year only to leave to a job without training. ‘Job with training’ – 8% of young people spend most of their time in jobs with training, a small number with short periods of other activity. ‘Becoming NEET’ – 5% of young people who complete or drop out of a course of full-rime education spend most of the remainder of their period NEET. Some start jobs only to leave them quickly. ‘Education to work with training’ – 6% of young people who study in full-time education at 16, then move into a job with training, however some with a short period NEET. ‘Mainly NEET’ – 5% of young people cycle between NEET and other activities (mainly work with out training). Some young people spend the full two years NEET. Here the LSYPE & YCS have been used to categorise the routes taken by young people in the two years following compulsory education. This pie chart represents eight stereotypical pathways based on individual monthly activity data. ‘Continuous education’ - 59% of young people remain in full-time education for two full years after compulsory education. Source: DCSF using LSYPE and YCS

14. Greater participation in learning has extensively altered the relationship young people have with the labour market… Trends in Youth Development Economic The transition out of education and into full time work has become more problematic for young people, who have been hit particularly hard recently by the recession. Over 300,000 16 & 17 year olds in full-time education are also in part-time employment, though they are becoming a diminishing minority. ILO unemployment by age Employment rate of 16-17 year olds in FT Education Recession Recession Source: ONS Labour Market Statistics

15. …and this has happened at the same time as changes to independent living. More educated young people are staying at home longer… Trends in Youth Development Social The expansion of higher education has seen more young people leave home at age 18 - but adults in their 20s are now more likely to live with their parents than they were 20 years ago The trend is most marked for those with higher qualifications suggesting more returners home after university. Percentage of young adults living with their parent (s) by age and gender Percentage of males and females aged 22-24 living with parents) in 1988 and 2008 according to highest educational qualification Berrington et al. (2009) in Population Trends 138, ONS

16. …and starting families later. Trends in Youth Development Social Parents are getting older, as they start families later in life… Average age of mother at first birth, 1938-2007 Adolescent fertility rate: births per 1 000 women aged 15-19, 2005 …although a significant minority become pregnant as teenagers. By age 17/18, 3% of young people have children of their own (LSYPE Sweep 5 / YCS Sweep 2) Rate per 1000 Source: ONS Social Trends 2009; World Development Indicators 2008.

17. Digital age has profoundly changed what young people do, how they see themselves and communicate with one another... Trends in Youth Development Technological 90% 12-15 year olds use a mobile phone (2007). The growth of Twitter in recent year exemplifies the explosion of social networking. 55% 12-15 year olds who used the internet at home had created a page or profile on a social networking site (2007). 75% said that they couldn't live without the internet. 45% said that they felt happiest when online. 32% agreed with the statement: 'I can access all the information I need online, there is no need to speak to a real person about my problems'. 82% said they had used the internet to look for advice and information for themselves and 60% had for other people. 37% said that they would use the internet to give advice to others on sensitive issues. Media Literacy Audit, Ofcom (2009); Youthnet’s Life Support:Young people’s needs in a digital age report. Twitter.com

18. ...but despite this technological change, what 14-19 year olds say most worries them feels remarkably familiar. Trends in Youth Development Voice of Young People In the past 6 months, what have been the 3 most challenging issues you have come across in your life? Education Net 74% Careers Net 34% Relationships Net 44% Health Net 20% Driving lessons/learning to drive, growing up, travel Top 15 responses shown Source: DCSF Digital Comms presentation, quant online survey of 1000 14-19s

19. Young people today embody many of the values of modern Britain Trends in Youth Development Voice of Young People Young people are liberal and racially tolerant. They are proud to be British and perceive Britain as providing opportunity for self-improvement… On voting – 51% likely to vote in general election. Only 11% said they definitely wouldn’t vote… …but this rose to over one quarter for those with the lowest qualifications. 74% of young people agreed that people from different racial, ethnic and religious backgrounds get on well together in their local community 80% Pakistani YP say that being British is important to them. Young people are perhaps surprisingly politically engaged Statement Agree It is easier for people like me to get on and improve things for themselves than it was for my parents 78% Voting Britain today is a place where people are usually treated fairly no matter what background they come from 55% These days newspapers usually make young people out to be much worse than they actually are 78% Community Cohesion There is too little respect for religion and religious values in Britain today 56% Britain is a free country where everyone’s rights are respected no matter what their background 60% Source: LSYPE wave 5; YCS Cohort 13, Sweep 2

20. Contents • Introduction • Context – Trends in Youth Development • Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions • Where Policy Intervenes • Principles from the Evidence

21. There is no one single, linear, successful youth transition to adulthood. Transitions occur at different ages and at different rates. Drivers in successful Youth Transitions Employers’ Demands A conceptual model… Childhood Adulthood 14 16 19 Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Economic and wider Outcomes Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Young Person's Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Family Resources Friends and Peers Community School

22. What do we mean by cognitive and social & emotional skills? Cognitive skills are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study, and learn… …Social and Emotional skills cover a much wider range. They are sometimes referred to as ‘soft skills’ or ‘life skills’. They include a wide variety of mental processes used to: • Analyse sounds and images; • Recall information from memory; • Make associations between different pieces of information; and • Maintain concentration on particular tasks. They can be individually identified and measured. Cognitive skill strength and efficiency correlates directly with students' ease of learning. Examples of skills and characteristics that commonly fall under this heading: • Optimism • Confidence / self confidence • Perseverance and persistence • Planning and organising • Dependability • Self-esteem • Emotional intelligence • Self management • Team work • Locus of control • Managing relationships • Managing stress • Self-efficacy

23. Cognitive skills are ultimately the single most important driver of economic outcomes… Economic Outcomes In general, higher qualifications carry higher returns and academic qualifications earn more than their vocational counterparts… …and qualifications are associated with higher employment rates. Wage* returns to academic and vocational qualifications Employment rate by highest qualification level Vocational degrees include “professional” qualifications such as accountancy, law, etc. Academic Vocational *Wage returns are interpreted as the average percentage increase in wages or the chance of being employed as result of holding a particular qualification compared to other people that do not hold that qualification. They are a more sophisticated way to analyse the economic value of skills as they take account of other factors that also might affect wages or employment chances. Examples of these include, gender, age, ethnicity, hours worked and region. Source: Jenkins et al (2007): The Returns to Qualifications in England, Updating the Evidence Base on Level 2 and Level 3 Vocational Qualifications. CEE Discussion Paper no. 89.

24. …and the labour market seems to be absorbing the increase in supply of qualifications, with average returns remaining stable… Economic Outcomes Returns for academic qualificationshave remained fairly stable over time… Average wage returns 1997-2006 …the same applies for vocational qualifications Average wage returns 1997-2006 Source: Jenkins et al (2007): The Returns to Qualifications in England, Updating the Evidence Base on Level 2 and Level 3 Vocational Qualifications. CEE Discussion Paper no. 89.

25. …and demand for cognitive and social and emotional skills is likely to continue. Employers’ demands Economic Outcomes The level of skill required to do a job is generally rising… …and the type of skills demanded are also changing, from manual skills, to abilities in communication and self-management. Changes in qualifications required 1997-2006, million jobs Projected change in skill requirements to 2010 Sources: Felstead et al (2006) Skills at work; IER estimates base on Census and LFS data

26. Employers have clear demands on young entrants to the labour force – including social and emotional skills. Employers’ demands Economic Outcomes In preparation for the world of work, satisfaction of employers towards young people remains reasonably good, and is improving… … although it is with personal attributes that greatest shortcomings are identified. Employers’ views on the preparedness of young people for work Employers’ views on the shortcomings of young people’s preparedness for work National Employers Skills Survey 2009; National Employers Skills Survey 2007. Results from 79,000 employers Personal attributes are defined in NESS as: Lack of motivation/enthusiasm/commitment; work ethic/poor attitude to work; time keeping skills/punctuality; poor attitude (inc. manners/respect); not prepared to work long hours; discipline; social/people skills; common sense; initiative; confidence; responsibility; personal appearance/presentation.

27. Social and emotional skills are also important in determining outcomes, including cognitive skills social and emotional skills Cognitive skills There is significant interdependence between cognitive and social /self-regulation skills – with achievement in maths… Recent research has shown that attentiveness and locus of control are almost as important as cognitive skills for educational attainment and economic outcomes… The relative importance of cognitive and social and emotional at age 10 on likelihood of attaining minimum educational qualifications at age 261 Relative Impact of Different Skills on Numeracy Achievement1 Each marker refers to an individual study. The black markers are studies with statistically significant results Marginal effect Estimated coefficient Cognitive social and emotional 1) Feinstein (2000), The relative importance of academic, psychological and behavioural attributes developed in childhood. 2) Carneiro et al, (2007), The Impact of Early Cognitive and social and emotional Skills on Later Outcomes; 1) Duncan et al, 'School Readiness and Later Achievement.', Developmental Psychology 43:6. Filled triangles indicate statistically significant coefficients (2008). Results based on results from 6 surveys across different countries.

28. Young peoples’ attitudes and behaviours are key and they are shaped by a variety of influences Drivers in successful Youth Transitions Employers’ Demands A conceptual model… Childhood Adulthood 14 16 19 Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Economic and wider Outcomes Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Young Person's Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Family Resources Friends and Peers Community School

29. Individual child attitudes are critical. Levels of self-belief are related to attainment, whereas changes are more closely associated with engagement in risky behaviours… Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours There are strong associations between children’s beliefs regarding their own ability and their academic attainment…. …but losing self-belief is also associated with increased likelihood in engagement in risky behaviours. There are also strong associations between whether a child believes they have control over their own economic destiny (locus of control) and their academic attainment… Impact of child self-belief on various outcomes at age 16 Effect size (% of standard deviation) for KS4; Marginal percentage point effect for other outcomes Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102 *Goodman and Gregg ed.s (forthcoming) Children’s educational outcomes: the role of attitudes and behaviours, from early childhood to late adolescence.

30. Engaging in multiple ‘risky’ behaviours is also associated with low educational attainment… Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Engaging in only one or two risky behaviours is associated with a small and statistically insignificant reduction in attainment (< 1 GCSE grade = 6 GCSE points) However, multiple engagement in risky behaviours is associated with up to a 20% reduction in GCSE points. A reduction in 8-12 entire GCSE grades. Impact of engagement in multiple risky behaviours on GCSE attainment Source: LSYPE Note: 6 points represent 1 grade in 1 subject, although 16 points are given for the lowest pass (grade G)

31. …and undertaking self-developmental activity is associated with better educational attainment and fewer risky behaviours. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Young people engaging in self-development activities, including sport, on average achieved 10%-20% higher GCSE point scores…. ….Self-development activities are correlated with fewer risky behaviours, whereas there is a positive correlation with socialising activities Impact of engagement in multiple self-development behaviours on GCSE attainment Impact of socialising activities and self development activities on engagement in risky behaviours Source: LSYPE Note: 6 points represent 1 grade in 1 subject, although 16 points are given for the lowest pass (grade G)

32. Parental attitudes and behaviours, along with family processes, matter a great deal for older children. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Young people, who get on badly with their parents are associated with a lower likelihood of being in FT education • Good parenting matters for older children too. • Most families function as supportive unit • e.g. 74% eat together most nights (age 13/14) • Teenagers rely on their parents for psychological and emotional support. • Sharing problems is strongly associated with post-16 transitions. • Young people who “never talk to mum about things that matter” are twice as likely to become NEET as those who talk at least once a week (15% versus 8%)… • …and 15% less likely to be in full-time education. • Overwhelming evidence from LSYPE that these sort of behaviours matter for attainment through KS4, over and above earlier age effects. Source: LSYPE

33. Parents act as an important source of support and guidance. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Happy adolescents feel most able to talk to their parents about things that matter… …but only 1 in 5 unhappy or depressed adolescents felt able to talk to their parents. Having someone to talk to matters. 26% feeling much more unhappy than usual had no-one to talk to. People that young people are likely to talk to about things that matter to them, by self-reported well-being “Who are you most likely to tell your problems to?” …disaggregated by how young person feels. Source: LSYPE, wave 4

34. Parental expectations to stay on in learning post age 16 have become a social ‘norm’… Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Parental expectations have risen across all social class background, with gaps narrowing in latest born cohort Although high social class parents have the highest learning aspirations for their children, the picture is reversed once adjusted for prior attainment. Direct influence of parental education on parental expectations for education has reduced for the later born cohorts. The role of academic attainment in influencing expectations among teenagers and parents has reduced for later born cohort. Therefore, it suggests that social change has made further education a norm. percentage Sources: Schoon and Polek (2009) High Hopes in a Changing World: Social disadvantage and educational expectations in three age cohorts

35. …but there are socioeconomic differences in parents’ assessment of the likelihood of this happening Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Most parents would like their young person to continue in education beyond the age of 16... …but the extent to which parents think it is likely their young person will enter HE varies significantly by income % of parents who said education when asked what they would like YP to do when they leave school? Proportion of parents who thought it was likely their child would enter Higher Education proportion percentage Source: LSYPE

36. Socio-economic differences in financial and other resources in families impacts on access to services that aid attainment Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Family Resources Although there are strong differences in educational outcomes by family income, the causal impact of income is only modest, albeit significant Indicative ways in which differential access to resources affects attainment is shown through the gradients in use of private tuition and in access to computer or internet access. UK evidence suggest that a one-third reduction in family income increases the propensity to achieve no A-C GCSEs by between 1 and 3 percentage points… Access to material resources by socio-economic position Differential access to family resources also impacts on affordability of participation in learning post-16 and may contribute to the significant drop-off in aspiration toward HE for young people and their parents from lower social-class families between the ages of 14 and 16. Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102 Gregg and Blanden, 2004 “Family Income and Educational Attainment: A Review of Approaches and Evidence for Britain”,

37. As young people get older they spend more time withtheir peers, particularly those from more socially disadvantaged groups. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Friends and Peers During adolescence, young people want to spend more time with peers. Parents help to moderate young people’s peer and community contexts. For example, parental values and practices indirectly determine their teenagers’ choice of peer group or ‘crowd’. The importance of the peer group appears to peak at age 15 and is particularly influential for boys. Young people in the UK, in particular boys, spend more time with their peers than almost all other OECD countries. Young people in lone parent families working more than 16 hours per week are most likely to frequently spend time at friends’ houses and have their friends over to theirs. “I’d rather spend time with friends than family” by age percentage Interaction with friends, by lone parent/working status …with young people from lower SEGs spending more time with peers than those from higher SEGs3 percentage Number of days had friends round last week Number of days visited friends at home last week Sources: Young People in Britain: The attitudes and Experiences of 12 to 19 Year Olds, NatCen (2004); Currie at al, 2004; DWP, 2005 (based on 11-15 year olds); Asmussen et al. (2007)

38. The majority of young people have good peer relations, helping them to develop themselves throughout adolescence… Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Friends and Peers Good peer relations are integral to the development of internal (personal) skills. Making and keeping friends requires an assortment of internal skills including functional skills such as: • problem solving; • aspects of self-regulation including perspective taking ability, affect recognition; • self-belief; and • social & behavioural skills such as communications skills, understanding others and so on. As these competencies develop friendships change and can become more stable and reciprocal. 5 Strong positive peer friendships cushion young people from the stresses associated with experiences like bullying or even the divorce of parents, as friends provide important help and advice about how to manage problems. 3 They can also produce feelings of personal well-being and prevent loneliness. 3 Young people are more likely to be satisfied by their friendship networks1 Do you have a satisfactory friendship network? Age Range (Years) Sources: Office of National Statistics 2005; Sullivan 1953; Hodges et al 1999; Rubin et al 1998 ; Epstein 1986; Savin-Williams & Berndt (1990); Hartup (1993); Armsden & Greenberg (1987); Buhrmester and Yin (1997)

39. …however, a significant minority struggle to form or maintain peer relationships. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Friends and Peers Although most young people have friends, up to 18% of today’s young people have no ‘best friend who they can really trust’1… …and young people from lower socio-economic backgrounds are marginally more likely to be bullied Young people bullied in the past 3 years (years 9, 10 or 11) Young people who said they had a friend they could really trust percentage percentage If a young person’s peer influences are primarily negative, the likelihood of adjustment difficulties later on are increased. For example, a lack of friendships at an early age is linked to later depression. Good Childhood Enquiry (2005); Gifford-Smith et al 2002; LSYPE

40. ..and not having good friendship and peer relationships is associated with poorer outcomes. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Friends and Peers Association between different types of bullying and impact on GCSE score Any form of being bullied is associated with reduced attainment. Overall, being bullied in KS4 is correlated with a reduction in attainment of 2 GCSE grades. Those bullied are less likely to be in full-time education and more likely to become NEET Happiness and well-being is much lower for those experiencing bullying. Source: LSYPE wave 4

41. Neighbourhood characteristics in and of themselves appear to have little influence on outcomes, except NEET Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours Community Deprived individuals living in deprived areas are more likely to be NEET at age 17 than deprived individuals living in non-deprived areas. However same study finds no evidence that neighbourhood deprivation (after controlling for other factors) consistently affects Key Stage 4 scores or any behavioural outcomes at age 16… …though the literature is more mixed about the impact of neighbourhoods on behavioural outcomes. Impact of multiple deprivation on chances of being NEET (relative to 20% most deprived neighbourhoods) Marginal effect (% point) Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102 41

42. Relatively little of the difference in pupils’ attainment can be explained by differences across schools… Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours School About 8% of the variation between pupils in Key Stage 4 is attributable to school differences. Voluntary-Aided schools have the best GCSE results, but they also have a higher quality intake Key Stage 2 and 4 attainment by school type Percentage of between-school variation in Key Stage 2 and 4 taking into account prior attainment and other pupil characteristics Higher between-school variation in primary reflects the fact that the primaries have a large number of institutions, each with a small number of teachers and pupils, and secondary which has a smaller number of institutions, each with a large number of teachers and pupils. percentage DCSF (2009) DCSF (2008) The Composition of Schools in England 42

43. …but good teachers do seem to matter. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours School Being taught by a high-quality (75th percentile) rather than low-quality (25th percentile) teacher adds 0.425 of a GCSE grade per subject. Rivkin et al. (2005) find the gap in GCSE points between a poor and non-poor student is 6.08 GCSE points… …so if a poor student had good teachers for all 8 subjects and the non-poor student had poor (25th percentile teachers) for all 8, this would make up 3.4 points (56%) of the difference. Impact of teacher quality on GCSE attainment Source: Burgess et al (2009) Do teachers matter? Measuring the variation in teacher effectiveness in England

44. The most damaging behaviour of all to a young person’s prospects is disengagement from school, manifested in absence… Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours School Persistent absence from school is costly and damaging to educational outcomes… …and young people who play truant are more likely to be NEET for longer durations GCSE attainment of persistent absentees Association between NEET duration and truancy in year 11 There is a penalty of 3 GCSE points for a 1% increase in absence over the Key Stage 6 points = 1 grade in 1 GCSE subject Therefore 8% increase in absence over the key stage is equivalent to the FSM penalty (25 points) Source: DCSF internal analysis, LSYPE

45. …with disengagement clearly associated with earlier poor attitudes towards school. Young Person’s Attitudes and Behaviours School Children that enjoy school perform better at KS4, even when accounting for prior attainment and are significantly less likely to engage in risky and anti-social behaviour Children who are bullied perform worse than children who are not bullied and are more likely to experience behavioural problems… …but are no more likely to truant… Impact of school enjoyment on outcomes Solid filled bars are significant at p<0.01, stippled bars at p<0.05 and unfilled bars n/s. Source: Chowdry et al. (2009), Drivers and Barriers to Educational Success - Evidence from the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England. DCSF-RR102

46. Contents • Introduction • Context – Trends in Youth Development • Drivers in Successful Youth Transitions • Where Policy Intervenes • Principles from the Evidence

47. This section looks at how current policy intervention acts on each of those drivers to produce better and more equal outcomes. Adulthood 14 16 19 Childhood Prior Attainment Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Economic Outcomes Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Policy interventions Young Person's Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Family Resources Friends and Peers Community School

48. Most of the social gradients in adolescent development are associated with gaps generated in earlier childhood… Childhood Prior Attainment High performing five year-olds are much more likely to attain higher qualifications at 26 Evidence from the 1970 birth cohort shows social class gaps open early, and continue to widen… High SES, High Ability Percentage of 26 year olds attaining educational and vocational qualifications by quartile position in early development scores at age 5 High SES, Low Ability Low SES, High Ability Low SES, Low Ability …and although there is evidence that the link between parental income and outcomes is weakening slightly*, data from children born in 2000 suggest the same phenomenon is still occurring percentage Feinstein, L (1999) The relative economic importance of academic, psychological and behavioural attributes developed in childhood Source: Feinstein (2003). “Inequality in the Early Cognitive Development of British Children in the 1970 Cohort,” Economica, p73-97. Blanden and Machin (2007) Recent Changes in Intergenerational Mobility *Gregg and Macmillan (2009) Family Income and Education in the Next Generation: Exploring the income gradients in education for the current cohorts of youth. CMPO Working Paper 09/223

49. …but there is plenty of scope for progress in adolescence. What young people and their parents do, how they think and how they act has an important bearing on their life trajectory. Childhood Prior Attainment Differences in prior attainment explain about 60 per cent of the gap in test scores between young people from rich and poor families. Family background factors (including parental education) account for only a relatively small fraction of the attainment gap between young people from rich and poor families. This suggests that the effect of parental education and family background on attainment at age 16 works largely through its influence on attainment by age 11. Differences in parental and young people’s attitudes and behaviours captured at ages 14 and 16 together explain roughly one quarter of the gap in GCSE results between young people from rich and poor families Explaining the gap between the poorest and the richest at age 16: decomposition analysis Goodman and Gregg [eds] (2010) Children’s educational outcomes: the role of attitudes and behaviours, from early childhood to late adolescence.

50. Specific interventions tackle the increasing social gradient that occurs post-14 through each of the drivers identified. Where Policy Intervenes Adulthood 14 16 19 Childhood Prior Attainment Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Social and emotional skills Economic Outcomes Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Cognitive Skills Young Person's Attitudes and Behaviours Parental Attitudes Family Resources Friends and Peers Community School Preventing Disengagement Technological Access Tackling Risky Behaviours Helping post-16 transitions Developing social and emotional attributes