References and Citations

1. References and Citations C507 Scientific Writing Session 9

2. First, An Explanation • Reference: is “the bibliographic descriptors of documents cited in the text, tables or legends of figures of a document.” • Citation: is “the brief formal indications in text, tables or figure legends of the documents cited and represented in the references listed at the end of the article, chapter or book.”

3. Two Major Systems • Citation-sequence system • Name-year system • There are many variations to these two systems • Which system is selected by an editor or publisher should be determined by judgments on its advantages and disadvantages for the expected readership

4. Citation-Sequence System • Here, the numeric citations in text, tables and figures are the numbers that identify the references (to articles, chapters, books) listed at the end of the document. References are numbered and listed in the sequence they are first cited. • Subsequent citations of the same document use the same number as the initial citation.

5. Citation-Sequence System • Advantages • Citations interrupt only minimally the reading of text (as compared to name system, where a long list of names may interrupt the flow of text on a regular basis) • Using numbers instead of names saves space, paper and cost

6. Citation-Sequence System • Disadvantages • Readers have to turn to the list to find out whose work is being cited • When authors have to add or delete a reference at a late stage, they will have to reorder and renumber reference lists (though Refman may solve that problem) • Visibility of author names is lower when they appear only in references and not citations

7. Name-Year System • Here, citations in text, tables and figure legends of the references listed at the end of the document (article, chapter, book) consist of surname of the author, by which the reference is alphabetized in the list, and the year of publication of the document. The name and date are enclosed within parentheses.

8. Name-Year System • Advantages • Adding or deleting references will lead only to adding or deleting citations and will not force a renumbering of citations • In some disciplines, readers may be able to identify documents readily from the citations and will not have to turn to the references • Even if not familiar with the citation, the year can give a historical perspective • Authors like seeing their names cited

9. Name-Year System • Disadvantages • When large numbers of documents must be cited, the long string of citations within parentheses may be highly irritating to readers as a gross interruption of text • The rules for sequence of citations, punctuation within citations and alphabetization of reference lists are more complex than for citing by number

10. My Preference • JMPT uses a citation-sequence system known as the Vancouver System, in which citations occur in order of appearance. We will focus on that system rather than the name-year system

11. Listed References • References to articles or books published or accepted for publication or to papers presented at professional meetings are listed in numerical order at the end of the communication • Each reference is given a separate entry

12. Not Listed • References to mass circulation magazines or newspapers, material not yet accepted for publication, and personal communications (both oral and written) are not acceptable as listed references, except in usual circumstances, and should be given parenthetically in the text

13. References Given in Text • In some circumstances, references may be included parenthetically in the text • Note that in the text • Authors name may or may not be named • Title is not given • Name of journal is abbreviated only when enclosed in parentheses • Inclusive page numbers are given

14. References Given in Text • Example: • “The results were reported recently by West (Br Med J 1981;282:355-357)” OR • “The results were reported recently in the British Medical Journal (1981;282:355-357)”

15. References Given in Text • References to publications not acceptable as listed references may be included parenthetically in the text • Use a concise form: name of periodical, data, initial page number

16. References Given in Text • Examples: • “The explanation is given in one recent account (Newsweek. March 17, 1980:102)” • “The Archives of Surgery article on surgeon glut was picked up by a local newspaper (Chicago Tribune. October 2, 1986:6)”

17. Author Responsibility for Accuracy • Authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the references in their communications. • You can expect to be queried if a reference appears to be inaccurate

18. Author Responsibility for Accuracy • Gosling CM, Cameron M, Gibbons PF. Referencing and quotation accuracy in four manual therapy journals. Man Ther 2004;9:36-40

19. Minimum Acceptable Data • To be acceptable, a reference must include certain minimal data • Journal: Author(s), article title, journal, year volume, page range • Book: Author(s), title, place of publication, publisher, year • Enough information to identify and retrieve the material should be provided

20. Number Permitted • A good indication of the reliability of an author’s work is the type and number of references selected. • Too many references may indicate a lack of critical thinking • Too few references may suggest the possibility of unwarranted speculation

21. Number Permitted • References have two major purposes • Documentation • Acknowledgement • Acknowledgement references should be limited to reports that have contributed substantially to the author’s own current work.

22. Numbering • References should be numbered consecutively, using Arabic numerals, in the order in which they are cited in text • Unnumbered references are only rarely used, and in such cases, they usually appear alphabetically as a list of selected readings

23. Citation • Each reference should be cited in the text • Citation may also be made in tables, figures and legends • Use Arabic superscript numerals • These appear outside periods and commas • These appear inside colons and semicolons

24. Citation • When more than 2 references are cited at a given place, use hyphens to join the first and last numbers of a closed series • Use commas without space to separate other parts of a multiple citation • As reported previously,1-3,8,19 • The derived data were as follows3,4:

25. Citation • When a multiple citation involves more than 23 characters, use an asterisk in the text and give the citation in a footnote at the bottom of the page, ie: • As reported previously,* • Note that the reference numerals in such a footnote are set full size, on line rather than as superscripts, and that spacing is different from the superscript method

26. Citation • If you wish to cite different page numbers from a single reference source at different places in the text, the page numbers are included in the superscript citation and the source appears only once in the list of references

27. Authors • Use author’s surname followed by initials without punctuation • All author names should be provided unless there are more than 6; if >6, then use the first 3 plus et al • Do not use and between names • Abbreviations for Jr, Sr and Roman numerals follow author initials

28. Authors • When mentioned in text • Only surnames are used • For 2 author reference, give both names • For >2, give first author surname followed by “et al,” or “and associates,” etc. • Note: never use the possessive form of et al’s: instead, use it as “The data of Doe et al were reported.”

29. Prefixes and Particles • Prefixes containing prefixes or particles should be spelled and alphabetized according to the preference of the persons concerned • 1. van Gylswyk NO, Roche CI • 2. Van Rosevelt RF, Johnson KK, Van Mourik JA

30. Titles • Articles and part of books- in English- language titles, capitalize only the first letter of the first word, proper names and abbreviations that are normally capitalized

31. Titles • Books, journals, governmental bulletins- in English-language titles, capitalize the first and last words and each word that is not an article, preposition or conjunction of less than 4 letters. In every language, italicize the title

32. Foreign-Language Titles • Foreign-language titles are usually not translated; if they have been, bracketed indication of the original language should follow the title • Watch carefully for diacritical marks

33. Subtitles • Style for subtitles follows that for titles in regard to spelling, abbreviations, numbers, capitalization and use of italics, except that for journal articles the subtitle begins with a lowercase letter • A colon separates title and subtitle • If a subtitle is numbered, use a Roman numeral followed by a colon

34. References to Journals • Let us focus upon how to properly cite journal articles in your own article

35. Complete Data • A complete journal reference includes: • Author name and initials • Title and subtitle of article • Abbreviated name of journal • Year and volume number • Part or supplement number, if applicable • Issue month or number when pagination is not consecutive in the journal • Inclusive page numbers

36. Names of Journals • Abbreviate and italicize names of journals • Use initial capital letters • Use Index Medicus abbreviations • ie, J Manipulative Physiol Ther • ie, Br Med J • Information in brackets should be retained without brackets • ie, J Bone Joint Surg Br

37. Page Numbers and Dates • Do not omit digits from inclusive page numbers • The year, the semicolon following it, the volume number, the colon following it, and the page numbers are set with spaces closed up • ie, Jones J. Necrotizing disease. JAMA 1980;244:2190-2191

38. Serialized Article • For a serialized article, the cited parts of which appear in the same volume, follow this example: • Lerner PI, Weinstein L. Infective endocarditis in the antibiotic era. N Engl J Med 1966;274:199-206, 388-393

39. Journals Without Volume Numbers • If a journal has no volume number or paginates each issue beginning with page 1 (for example, JACA), use the following: • Shands KN. Legionnaire’s disease. Dis Mon. December 1980;27:1-59 • Abraham EP. The beta-lactam antibiotics. Sci Am. June 1981:76-97

40. Issue Number • Do not include the issue number or month expect in the case of a special issue or when pagination is not consecutive throughout the volume. In the latter case, the month or the date of the issue is preferable to the issue number

41. Special Issue • Reference to all of part of a special issue of a journal should be given as follows: • McDonald WI. Attitudes to the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. October 21, 1983;40(special issue):667-670

42. Supplements • The following form can be used: • Blendon RJ. The prospects for state and local governments playing a broader role in health care. AM J Public Health 1981;71(suppl):9-15 • A number of other forms may be used depending upon the specifics

43. Abstracts • Reference to an abstract of an article should be permitted only when the original article is not readily available (ie, presented at a meeting but not yet published) • Paillard A. Natural history of low back pain. J Am Chiropr Soc 1981;24:112. Abstract.

44. Special Department of a Journal • When reference is made to material from a special department in a journal, the department should be identified only if the cited material has no byline or signature or no page number (this is preferable to citing Anonymous) • How to lower blood pressure. Lancet 1987;2:251-252. Editorial.

45. Other Material Without Authors • Reference may be made to material that has no author or is prepared by a committee or other group. The following form may be used: • Centers for Disease Control. Influenza- Worldwide. MMWR 1979;28:51-52

46. Discussants • If reference citation in the text names a discussant specifically rather than the author, eg. “as noted by Sachs,” the following form is used: • Sachs W. In discussion: Baer RL, Andrade J. Pemphigus erythmatosus. Arch Dermatol 1996;93:374-375

47. More…. • We just discussed journals only. You will need to also know the rules for: • Books • Special materials • Legal references • Websites and URLs- this is a growing problem