Which of the following is NOT a major category of biological explanation?

1. Which of the following is NOT a major category of biological explanation? • Physiological explanations • Ontogenetic explanations • Evolutionary explanations • Mental explanations d. Mental explanations

2. The dualist position • Is problematic because it does not fit with your commonsense notion of the mind • Proposes that the mind is the same thing as brain activity • Cannot explain how, if the mind is not a type of matter or energy, it could possibly alter the electrical and chemical activities of the brain • Proposes that mind is just and illusion c. Cannot explain how, if the mind is not a type of matter or energy, it could possibly alter electrical and chemical activities of the brain

3. The view that everything that exists is physical, and that mental events either don’t exist or can be explained in purely physical terms, is characteristic of which position? • Materialism • Dualism • Mentalism • The identity position a. materialism

4. A solipsist • Assumes that other people, animals, and computers are conscious because they look and/or act much like I do • Assumes that other people are conscious, but animals and computers are not • Assumes that I alone exist, or I alone am conscious • Is frequently a member of organization called solipsists c. Assumes that I alone exist, or I alone am conscious

5. The order of bases on DNA • Determines the order of bases on RNA, which in turn determines the order of amino acids in proteins • Directly determines the order of amino acids in proteins, which in turn determines the order if bases in RNA • Is less important for genetic function than is the total number of particular bases • Is more important for determining the shapes of carbohydrates and fats than of proteins a. Determines the order of bases on RNA, which in turn determines the order of amino acids in proteins

6. An individual with a pair of identical genes at a given site on a pair of chromosomes • Is homozygous for that gene • Is heterozygous for that gene • Must have crossing over at that gene • Must not have the ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide a. Is homozygous for that gene

7. Sex-linked genes are usually genes • On autosomal chromosomes that exposed only under hormonal conditions that are usually found only in one sex • On autosomal chromosomes that are expressed in both sexes • On the X chromosome, which cannot be overridden by a second X chromosome in males • That most frequently engage in crossing over c. On the X chromosome, which cannot be overridden by a second X chromosome in males

8. Mutations • Result from the recombination of genes from the two parents • Are random genetic changes that are usually maladaptive • Are so rare that they almost never affect inheritance • Are unlikely to produce harmful effects in offspring if the two parents are closely related; therefore people should marry their own relatives b. Are random genetic changes that are usually maladaptive

9. Phenylketonuria (PKU) • Has high heritability under normal conditions • Results from inability to metabolize phenylalanine, which results in high levels of that amino acid, which in turn results in brain damage and metal retardation • Effects can be minimized by a low phenylalanine diet • All of the above b. Results from inability to metabolize phenylalanine, which results in high levels of that amino acid, which in turn results in brain damage and metal retardation

10. Animal research • Yields no useful discoveries • Is regulated by institutional animal care and use committees, which are composed of veterinarians, community representatives, and scientists • Depends entirely on the wisdom and good intentions of individual researchers for maintaining good care of the animals • All of the above b. Is regulated by institutional animal care and use committees, which are composed of veterinarians, community representatives, and scientists

11. “abolitionists” animal advocates • Agree that some animal research is acceptable if an important goal can be achieved with minimal suffering • Maintain that use of primates in experimentation should be abolished, but that “lower” animals may be used • Maintain that all animal experimentation, as well as any other use of animals should be totally eliminated • Are also called “minimalists” c. Maintain that all animal experimentation, as well as any other use of animals should be totally eliminated

12. The membrane of a cell consists primarily of • Two layers of protein molecules • Two layers of fat molecules • Two layers of carbohydrate molecules • One layer of fat molecules b. Two layers of fat molecules

13. Which of the following is the site of protein synthesis in cells? • Ribosomes • Endoplasmic reticulum • Nucleus • Mitochondria a. Ribosomes

14. Which part of the cell consists of a network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations? • Ribosomes • Endoplasmic reticulum • Nucleus • Mitochondria b. Endoplasmic reticulum

15. Which part of the cell contains chromosomes? • Ribosomes • Endoplasmic reticulum • Nucleus • Mitochondria c. nucleus

16. Which part of the neuron is specialized to receive information from other neurons? • Dendrites • Soma • Axon • End bulbs a. dendrites

17. Dendritic spines • Are structures inside the dendrite that give it rigidity • Are the sites of all synapses on a neuron • Increase the surface area available for synapses • Are long outgrowths that stretch for several millimeters c. Increase the surface area available for synapses

18. Intrinsic neurons • Have multiple axons extending to numerous structures • Have dendrites and axons confined within a structure • Are afferent to a given structure • Are efferent to a given structure b. Have dendrites and axons confined within a structure

19. Glia • Are larger as well more numerous than neurons • Are found only in few areas of the brain • Got their name because early investigators thought they glued neutrons together • Form synaptic connections with neurons with other glia c. Got their name because early investigators thought they glued neurons together

20. Which of the following is not a function of a glia? • Guiding the migration of neurons and the regeneration of peripheral axons • Exchanging chemicals with adjacent neutrons • Forming myelin sheaths • Transmitting information over long distances to other cells d. Transmitting information over long distances to other cells

21. The blood brain barrier • Allows some substances to pass freely, while others to pass poorly or not at all • Is formed by schwann cells • Is completely impermeable to all substances • Keeps the blood from washing away neutrons a. Allows some substances to pass freely, while others to pass poorly or not at all

22. Which of the following is true of blood brain barrier? • Electrically charges molecules are the only molecules that can cross • Is a result from the tight junctions between endothelial cells • Fat soluble molecules cannot cross at all • An active transport system pumps blood across the barrier b. Is a result from the tight junctions between endothelial celss

23. If a virus enters the brain • It survives in the infected neuron • A particle is exposed through the neurons membrane so that the infected cell can be killed • It is immediately identified by glia before it can enter a neuron • It is impossible for any virus to enter the brain a. It survives in the infected neuron

24. Potassium • Is found mostly outside the neuron • It is pumped into the resting neuron by the sodium potassium pump, but some flows out as a result of the concentration gradient • Is actively pumped outside the neuron during the action potential • More than one of the above b. It is pumped into the resting neuron by the sodium potassium pump, but some flows out as a result of the concentration gradient

25. The sodium potassium pump • Creates a negative potential inside the neuron by removing three sodium ions for every two potassium ions that it brings in • Creates negative potential inside the neuron by removing two sodium ions for every three potassium ions that it brings in • Creates a positive potential inside the neuron by removing three sodium ions for every two potassium ions that it brings in • Is basically a passive mechanism that requires no metabolic energy a. Creates a negative potential inside the neuron by removing three sodium ions for every two potassium ions that it brings in

26. The resting potential • Prepare the neuron to respond rapidly to a stimulus • Is negative inside the neuron relative to the outside • Can be measured as the voltage difference between a microelectrode inside the neuron and a reference electrode outside the neuron • All of the above d. All of the above

27. Sodium ions • Are found largely inside the neuron during the resting state because they are attracted in by the negative charged there • They are found largely inside the neuron during the resting state because they are actively pumped in • They are found largely outside the neuron during the resting state because they are actively pumped out, and the membrane is largely impermeable to their reentry • Are actively repelled by the electrical charge of neutrons resting potential c. They are found largely outside the neuron during the resting state because they are actively pumped out, and the membrane is largely impermeable to their reentry

28. Hyperpolarization • Refers to a shift in cells potential in a more negative direction • Refers to a shift in the cells potential in a positive direction • Can trigger and action potential if it is large enough • Occurs in all or none fashion a. Refers to a shift in cells potential in a more negative direction

29. Depolarization of a neuron can be accomplished by having • A negative ion such a chloride (Cl-) flow into the cell • Potassium (K+) ions flow out of the cell • Sodium (Na+) ions flow into the cell • Sodium ions flow out of the cell c. Sodium (Na+) ions flow into the cell

30. The all-or-none law • Applies only to potentials in dendrites • States that the shape, size, and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it • Makes it impossible for the nervous system to signal intensity of a stimulus • All of the above b. States that the shape, size, and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it

31. The absolute refractory period is the time during which • A stimulus must exceed the usual threshold in order to produce an action potential • A neuron is more excitable than usual • The sodium gates are firmly closed and no new action potential can be generated • Sodium and potassium ions are rapidly flowing c. The sodium gates are firmly closed an no new action potential can be generated

32. Propagation of an action potential • Is analogous to the flow of electrons down a wire • Is almost instantaneous • Is inherently unidirectional because positive charges can flow only in one direction • Depends on passive diffusion of sodium ions inside the axon which depolarizes the neighboring areas of their threshold d. Depends on passive diffusion of sodium ions inside the axon which depolarizes the neighboring areas of their threshold

33. Myelin sheaths • Would be much more efficient if they were not interrupted with a lot of leaky nodes • Are interrupted about every one mm by a short unmyelinated segment • Are much less effective in sending transmission than a simple increase in axon size • composed primarily of protein b. Are interrupted about ever one mm by a short unmyelinated segment

34. Saltatory conduction refers to • The salt ions used in the action potential • Sodium ions jumping into the neuron once the sodium channels are open • The impulse jumping from one node of ranvier to the next • The impulse jumping from one myelin sheath to the next c. The impulse jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next

35. Myelin sheaths • A slow conduction of the impulse by blocking sodium entry to the cell their advantage lies making the impulse all or none • Are destroyed in multiple sclerosis • Are founded on dendrites • Are found on cell bodies b. Are destroyed in multiple sclerosis

36. Nodes of Ranvier • Are interruptions of the myelin sheaths of about one mm intervals • Are sites of abundant sodium channels • Are sites where an action potential is regenerated • All of the above d. All of the above

37. Local neurons utilized • Graded potentials to convey information over short distances • Graded potentials to convey information over long distances • Action potentials to transmit information over long distances • Action potentials to transmit information over short distances a. Graded potential to convey information over short distance

38. IPSP’s • May summate to generate an action potential • Are always hyperpolarizing under natural conditions • Are characterized mainly by a large influx of potassium ions • Are characterized mainly by a large influx of sodium ions b. Are always hyperpolarizing under natural conditions

39. Which of the following is true? • The size of EPSP’s is the same at all excitatory synapses • The primary means of inactivation for all neurotransmitters is degradation by an enzyme • The size, duration, and direction (hyperpolarizing and depolarizing) of a postsynaptic potential are functions of the type and amount of transmitter released, the type and number of receptor sites present, the amount of deactivating enzyme present at the synapse, the rate of reuptake and perhaps other factors • A given neuron may release either an excitatory or an inhibitory transmitter (at different times), depending on whether it was excited or inhibited by a previous neuron c.

40. EPSP’s and action potentials are similar in that • Sodium is the major ion producing a depolarization in both • Sodium is the major ion producing a hyperpolarization in both • Potassium is the major ion producing a depolarization in both • Both decay as a function of time and space, decreasing in magnitude as they travel along the membrane a. A sodium is the major ion producing a depolarization in both

41. EPSP’s • Result from a flow of potassium and chloride ions • Are always depolarizing in natural conditions • Are always large enough to cause the postsynaptic cell to reach triggering threshold for an action potential; otherwise there would be too much uncertainty in the nervous system • Are the same as action potentials b. Are always depolarizing in natural conditions

42. EPSP’s and IPSP’s • May alter a neuron’s spontaneous firing rate • Are more effective if they are located at the end of dendrites, rather than on the soma • Usually occur one at a time, so that the neuron does not get confused • All of the above a. May alter a neuron’s spontaneous firing rate

43. Vesicles • Are tiny, nearly-spherical packets filled with neurotransmitter • Are especially important for storing nitric oxide • Are the only places where transmitter is found in axon terminals • Store only excitatory neurotransmitters; inhibitory neurotransmitters are never stored in vesicles a. Are tiny, nearly-spherical packets filled with neurotransmitter

44. Each terminal of a given axon • Releases a different neurotransmitter, thus providing a rich repertoire of effects • Releases the same neurotransmitter or combination of neurotransmitters at every terminal of that axon • Releases only one neurotransmitter, so as not to “confuse” the postsynaptic cell • Releases all of the neurotransmitter known to exist in the brain b. Releases the same neurotransmitter or combination of neurotransmitters at every terminal of that axon

45. Reuptake of neurotransmitters • Is the major method of inactivation of Ach • Is the major method of inactivation of serotonin and the catecholamines • Is speeded up by COMT • Is completely blocked by MAO b. Is the major method of inactivation of serotonin and the catecholamines

46. The parasympathetic system • Is sometimes called the “fight or flight” system • Has a chain of interconnected ganglia along the thoracic and lumbar parts of the spinal cord • Uses norepinephrine as its transmitter; the sympathetic system uses acetylcholine • Is an energy-conserving system d. Is an energy conserving system

47. The hindbrain • Consists of four parts; the superior and inferior colliculi, the tectum, and the tegmentum • Contains the limbic system • Controls the pituitary gland • Consists of the pons, medulla and cerebellum d. Consists of the pons, medulla and cerebellum

48. The medulla • Contains prominent axons crossing from one side of the brain to the other • Is part of the limbic system • Contains nuclei that control vital functions • Is especially important for working memory c. Contains nuclei that control vital functions

49. The cerebellum • Contributes to the control of movement, shifting of attention and timing • Is concerned mostly with visual location in space • Is located immediately ventral to the pons • All of the above a. Contributes to the control of movement, shifting of attention and timing

50. The components of the midbrain include • The superior and inferior colliculi in the tectum, involved in sensory processing • The tegmentum, containing nuclei of the third and fourth cranial nerves, part of the reticular formation, and pathways connecting higher and lower structures • The substantia nigra, origin of a dopamine-containing pathway that deteriorates in Parkinson’s disease • All of the above d. All of the above