The Influence of Byzantium in the Romanian Literature

1. The Influence of Byzantium in the Romanian Literature - presentation within the L.L.P. ProgrammeComenius Project “Byzantium after Byzantium” Marina Neculai (XI th grade student) Alina Antohi (literature teacher) Daniela Livadaru (religion teacher)

2. Content • Origin and development of Byzantine literature • Circulation of manuscripts of Byzantine origin in the Romanian Countries • Translation and printing in the Romanian language • Original Romanian Creations • Neagoe Basarab’s Teachings (1517) • Neacşu’s letter • Pravila from Govora, 1640 • Vasile Lupu’s Pravila • Varlaam’ s Homiliary • Metropolitan Dosoftei and ”Lives of the saints” • Metropolitan Antim and “Didahiile” • Dimitrie Cantemir • Other epic creations

3. I. Origin and development of Byzantine literature • In Byzantine literature, four different cultural elements are to be reckoned with: the Greek, the Roman, the Christian and the Oriental. • Literature was wholly a concern of the high official and priestly classes; it was aristocratic or theological, not representative of the interests of the citizens. • Byzantium was the store-house of the greatest literature of the ancients, the Greek, and of the Eastern Church Fathers. Saint Maximus the Confessor, Florilegium, containing quotes from the Holy Bible, the Church Fathers and some Greek Classics - Manuscript in Greek on vellum, Byzantine Empire, 2nd half of 11th century -

4. I. Origin and development of Byzantine literature • The Contact of the Byzantine culture with literature, historiography, science, philosophy and ancient Greek art was maintained for 1000 years - this is unique in medieval Europe. • Byzantine literature didn’t have geniuses of the stature of Dante, but it always had a myriad of writers with intelligence and a remarkable culture. A page from the London Canon Tables, 6th century Byzantine Canon Table bound with a 12th century Gospel Book (British Library, Additional MS 5111)

5. I. Origin and development of Byzantine literature • Byzantine literature is classified in five groups. • Historians and chroniclers (Procopius, Evagrius, Anna Comnena) • Encyclopaedists and essayists (Michael Psellus, patriarch Photius ) • Writers of secular poetry (Agathias, Georgius Pisides, Theodorus Studites) • Ecclesiastical and theological literature (the Church Fathers) • Popular poetry ("Digenis Akritas") • The first three groups include representatives which continued the ancient traditions, while the remaining two groups include new literary species. (Byzantine manuscript)

6. I.I. Historians and chroniclers • The works of the historians belong to scholarly literature, while those of the chroniclers to the literature of the people. • The former are carefully elaborated, describing the present and the recent past; the latter give only raw material and cover the whole history. • The former are the more valuable for political history; the latter for the history of civilization. Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the 11th century chronicle of John Skylitzes

7. I. 2. Encyclopaedists and essayists • This genre was primarily directed to the systematic collection and sifting of manuscripts. • "Bibliotheca" (Library) of Photius is the most valuable literary compendium of the Middle Ages, containing trustworthy summaries of many ancient works that have since been lost, together with which many good characterizations and analyses are given. • With the twelfth century begins the period of original productions in imitation of antique models, a revival of the Alexandrian essay and rhetorical literature, a number of writers, like Michael Psellus, showing vigorous originality. Michael Psellus (left) with his student, Byzantine Emperor, Michael VII Doukas

8. I. 3. Secular poetry • The Byzantines wrote neither lyrics nor dramas, imitating neither Pindar nor Sophocles. • They wrote romances, panegyrics, epigrams, satires, and didactic and hortatory poetry. • Only one new type evolved independently by the Byzantines - the begging-poem. Saint Theodorus Studites, one of the finest Byzantine epigrammatists

9. I. 4. Ecclesiastical and theological literature • The works of Greek Fathers of Alexandria, Palestine, Jerusalem, Cyrene, and Cappadocia cover the whole field of ecclesiastical prose literature - dogma, exegesis, and homiletics. • These works became canonical for the whole Byzantine period. • Later works consist merely of compilations and commentaries. • Only three kinds of ecclesiastical literature, the ecclesiastical poetry of the sixth century, popular “lives of the saints” of the seventh, and the mystic writings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries exhibit later an independent growth. An illustration of the Parable of the Good Samaritan from the Rossano Gospels, believed to be the oldest surviving illustrated New Testament

10. I. 5. Popular poetry • The popular poetry, or folk-song, is an outgrowth of the idyllic, romantic literature of the Hellenic period. • The chief characteristic of folk-song throughout the Greek Middle Ages is its lyric note, which constantly finds expression in emotional turns. • The Byzantines imitated and adapted the romantic and legendary materials these westerners brought in the 13th century and revived heroic poetry, though imparted with a deep romantic tinge. Digenes Akritas and the dragon. 13th century Byzantine dish. Digenes Akritas is the only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines

11. II .Circulation of manuscripts of Byzantine origin in the Romanian Countries • The first manuscripts on our country’s territory date back to the 12th and 13th centuries and were written in Slavonic, after the Greek manuscripts. • Most manuscripts are religious books: The Evangelion (Lectionary), The Book of the Four Gospels from Putna, Triodion-Pentecostarion, The Oktoechos from Caransebes. Four Gospels Gavril Uric printed on parchment, Neamt Monastery, 1429 -today is in Bodleyana Library, Oxford-

12. The Gospels copied by St. Nicodemus • calligraphic lettering on parchment in the years 1404-1405 • silver plated with gold engraving of the Resurrection on the front and on the back, the Crucifixion • today it is kept in the Romanian Academy Museum

13. II . The Circulation of manuscripts of Byzantine origin in the Romanian Countries • Monasteries, benefitting the help of rulers and noblemen, have become true schools of translation, miniature and calligraphy of manuscripts - Neamt Putna, Moldovita, Voroneţ, Cozia. • The colourful miniatures which adorned the text, the frontispieces (the title sheets) and rich floral frames and the locks thoroughly worked in gold and silver, following the Byzantine and Slavic pattern, the Romanian manuscripts have an important historical and artistic value. The anonym four gospels, copied for Putna Monastery between 1504-1507 - Museum is located in the Monastery Putna -

14. "The Book of the Four Gospels" from Humor • The most important miniaturists calligraphic work during Stephen the Great’s reign . • Written on parchment in 1473 • Today it can be found in the Putna Monastery’s Museum, Suceava County

15. "The Book of the Four Gospels" from Humor • silver plated with gold engraving of the Resurrection on the front, and the back, the Assumption of Virgin Mary • Each gospel is preceeded by its author’s face, drawn on the whole page in vibrant colors and gold background.

16. The gospel from 1607 • Calligraphically lettered by Metropolitan Anastasius Crimca, Moldova’s most prominent representative of the clip in the 17th century. • Contains many scenes from the New Testament • Today, we can find it in Lvov City- Poland.

17. Thumbnails - 16-17 centuries

18. III.Translation and printing in the Romanian language • The first translations were in the Byzantine Empire, the authors being Greek. • The first translation into the Romanian language appeared in Transylvania in the early 16th century (rhotacised text): The Schei Psalter, The Hurmuzachi Psalter the Voroneţ Psalter, the Voronet Codex (excerpts from Acts and Epistles) - written in Cyrillic. • The first printed texts in the Romanian language were made in Sibiu, with Philip Moldoveanu's printing press. (Şchei Psalter, 16th century)

19. III. Translation and printing in the Romanian language • The Deacon Coresi printed many books in Romanian: The Romanian Four Gospels (1561), Apostle (1563), Psalter (1570), Liturgy (1570) Romanian Slavonic Psalter (1577), Slavo-Romanian Four Gospels (1580) and the Homiliary or Gospel with teachings (1581). • Due to the important role he had, deacon Coresi is considered a pioneer by historians, the father of Romanian literary language, also imposing rules of spelling in the Romanian language. The Romanian Gospel, 1561

20. The Old Testament from Orăştie (1582) • Old Testament (palaios = old) • It is the first Romanian translation and printing from the Old Testament books. • It completes Coresi’s work of printing the books of the Holy Scripture. It was printed by Serban, Coresi’s son at Orăştie (Hunedoara County). • It contains onl y the books Genesis and Exodus . • They used a Hungarian translation of Old Testament (Cluj, 1551), the Latin translation of the Bible (Vulgate), the Greek translation (Septuagint), and perhaps a Slavic version. • The first appearance of the term of „român” and not “rumân”.

21. III. Translation and printing in the Romanian language • In Moldavia, the first printing house was founded by Metropolitan Varlaam, at the Three Holy Hierarchs Monastery in Iasi. • The first printed book in the Romanian language in Iasi was Letter of thanks of the Greek delegates attending the synod of 1642. • The most important work printed here is The Homiliary or Romanian Book of Teachings (1643), inspired by the Greek Studite Damascus’s theological works, the neatest form of expression in the Romanian language in the first half of the 17thcentury. (Varlaam’s Homiliary , sheet title)

22. IV. Original Romanian Creations - Neagoe Basarab’s Teachings (1517) – • The first original Romanian work, written in Slavonic is Neagoe Basarab’s teachings to his son Theodosius, soon translated into Romanian. • The ruler Neagoe Basarab inspired from the writings of Byzantine Emperors “ Basil Macedonian ‘s teachings to his son Leo” and “Constantine Porphyrogenitos’ teachings to his son Romanos”. • This work summarizes the Romanian political, military, social, moral and theological thinking. Neagoe Basarab (1512-1521)

23. IV. Original Romanian creations - Neacsu’ s letter, 1521 – • The oldest Romanian writing, compact and uniform (in Cyrillic) • It was probably written on the 29th -30th of June 1521 at Dlăgopole (Slavic name of the town Campulung Muscel) - although not listed on the establishment it was described based on historical events and mentioned people. • It is kept at the Printing and Ancient Romanian Books Museum in Targoviste. (Neacsu’s letter)

24. IV. Original Romanian creations - Pravila from Govora 1640 – • Pravila from Govora appeared in 1640 in Wallachian and Transylvanian editions. • It is inspired by Byzantine law codes, because in Romania the Western code of laws was not applied. • Pravila is a Slavonic translation of a text, which shows a Byzantine nomocanon (compilation of legal rules). • This pravila is very important for us because it links our legal life both to the old Byzantine law and the Western Roman jurisprudence. (Pravila from Govora)

25. IV. Original Romanian creations - Vasile Lupu’s Pravila - • Vasile Lupu’s Pravila is a compilation of laws known as ”Romanian book for learning”, printed in 1646 at Iasi. • Its sources are: the Byzantine Agrarian Law from late 12th and early 13th centuries and a work of Prospero Farinacci. • In addition to numerous general provisions, Pravila contained rules of civil law, customs, tax and canon law. Vasile Lupu (1632-1653)

26. IV. Original Romanian creations - Metropolitan Dosoftei and ”Lives of the Saints” • The first major work of Metropolitan Dosoftei is” Psalter in verse”, the first versification of the Psalter in a national language. • He also wrote a chronological poem about the rulers of Moldova (136 Original lyrics - after the Byzantine model), the first printed Romanian Historical Writing. • Another important work is the complete collection of the lives of the saints, printed in Iasi between 1682-1686. The author himself confesses that “he translated from Greek and Serbian into the Romanian language”. • “The lives of the saints” represents the original adaptation of the Byzantine Minee. (Mitropolitul Dosoftei 1624-1693)

27. IV. . Original Romanian creations - Metropolitan Antim and “Didahiile” - • Metropolitan Antim of Wallachia is the founder of new religious oratory. • His work, "Didahii" ("Sermons") are of special value ecclesiastical writings, spoken on Sundays and on holidays, between 1709 and 1716, following the Byzantine style of oratory. • Antim shows a vast culture by citing some philosophers as Aristotle, Democritus, Anaximander, Hesiod, improvising on the model of St. John Chrysostom and St. Theophilact. Antim Ivireanul (1650-1716)

28. IV . Original Romanian creations – Dimitrie Cantemir – • Cantemir is a complex personality: Prince of Moldavia, scholar, encyclopaedist, ethnographer, geographer, philosopher, historian, linguist, musicologist, composer, politician and writer. • “The Divan or the Wise Man's quarrel with the World”(1698) is the first Romanian philosophical work, being an anthology of ancient and medieval texts, theological and secular. • “Description of Moldavia”(1714-1716) has the structure of a monograph, after the model of the Byzantine chroniclers and it is surprising thanks to the richness of information. Dimitrie Cantemir, 1673-1723

29. IV. Original romanian creations - other creations – • Other Romanian literary genres with Byzantine structure are: • The historical poem • The fable • The dramas • The legends • The riddles • The proverbs etc