Age of Metternich

1. Age of Metternich European Leaders try to repair Europe

2. Dual Revolution • Economic Revolution: England’s Industrial Rev • Political Revolution: France’s Revolution • Had been separate until 1815 • Two countries, two different paces • After 1815, these two forces began to fuse, reinforcing each other • Dual Revolution • Example: industrial middle class drove the push for representative government; sans-cullottes inspired socialist thinkers • Most of world history in last 200 years is about this fusion

3. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) • International Congress whose statesmen met in Vienna to determine the details of the peace settlement • The objective was to reestablish a conservative order in Europe following years of upheaval and war as a result of the French Revolution and Napoleon. • Dominated by the figure of Metternich, the foreign minister of Austria, thus. “Age of Metternich” • He hated liberalism, nationalism, revolution, anything that smacked of “republicanism”

4. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) • Blamed liberal middle class revolutionaries for stirring up the lower classes • Doubly dangerous since liberalism went hand in hand with national aspirations • Liberalism, therefore supported the idea of national self-determination • This threatened the aristocracy • Also would destroy Austrian Empire since most of the Empire was composed of subject ethnic groups

5. Carlsbad Decrees: 1819 • Metternich’s policies dominated Austria, Italian peninsula & German Confederation • 38 independent German states, including Prussia and Austria • Met in complicated assemblies dominated by Austria with Prussia, a willing junior partner • 1819: Metternich passed Carlsbad Decrees • Required that all 38 member states root out subversive ideas in their universities & newspapers

6. Congress of Vienna • Dominated by “conservatism” • Wanted Europe to forget about Napoleon, the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment • Wanted to achieve a “balance of power” in Europe • Power between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France • Wanted “legitimacy” to return rightful monarchs or their heirs to their thrones • Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolutions in France spread conservative ideas throughout Europe

7. Austria: Count Klemmens Von Metternich

8. Great BritainViscount Robert Castlereigh

9. PrussiaKarl August von Hardenberg

10. FranceCharles Maurice de Talleyrand

11. RussiaAlexander I

12. Congress of Vienna • First Treaty of Paris (May 1814) • France lost all its conquests of revolutionary and Napoleonic periods • Permitted to retain its frontiers of 1792 • Regained almost all colonies; not required to pay an indemnity • Napoleon’s 100 Days interrupted the proceedings • Second Treaty of Paris (November 1915) • After Waterloo, the allies imposed a more severe treaty than the first one

13. Congress of Vienna • Second Treaty of Paris • France was reduced to the borders of 1790 • French required to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs to the allies • and to accept allied military occupation of 17 French forts for 5 years.

14. The Holy Alliance: Sept. 1815 • Proposed by Tsar Alexander I • Signed by rulers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria • Pledged to observe Christian principles in both domestic and international affairs

15. The Quadruple Alliance: Nov. 1815 • Signed by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia • Agreed to maintain the alliance that had defeated Napoleon • To meet periodically in concerts to discuss issues of mutual concern • Concert of Europe: would lead to the preservation of the balance of power and the conservative order established in Vienna

16. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: 1818 • France had paid its indemnity • Members of the Quadruple Alliance decided that France should be freed from occupation • France rejoins the ranks of the great powers • Now the Quintuple Alliance • Alexander I proposed they should support existing governments and frontiers in Europe • Castlereagh rejects this; first break in the accord

17. Congress of Troppau: 1820 • Spain: revolutionaries rose up & forced the kings of Spain & Kingdom of Two Sicilies to grant liberal constitutions • Metternich and Alexander I: principle of active intervention in other countries to oppose revolutions • British objected to policy of intervention

18. Congress of Laibach: 1821 • Authorized Austria to suppress the revolution in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies • She did so • Breach between Britain and three conservative powers widened at this congress

19. Congress of Verona: 1822 • Last of the congresses • Authorized France to intervene in Spain • Spanish king reestablished absolute power • Castlereagh’s successor, George Canning finally withdrew Britain from the Quintuple Alliance

20. Britain’s Opposition to Intervention & the Monroe Doctrine • Without Britain’s naval power, conservative powers were unable to suppress the revolts in Latin America • British opposed intervention for 2 reasons: • On principle, was unfair • Didn’t want any interference with their profitable trade with Latin America • Canning proposed Great Britain & U.S. join in a declaration against any European intervention in the Western Hemisphere

21. Britain’s Opposition to Intervention & the Monroe Doctrine • Americans acted independently • Monroe Doctrine, 1823: • The U.S. would oppose intervention and any further colonization by the European powers in the Western Hemisphere • Great Britain endorsed Monroe Doctrine • Both U.S. & Britain began to grant formal diplomatic recognition to new L. A. republics

22. 1815 Europe

23. Liberalism • Metternich wanted conservatism • Liberalism was dominant among the commoners who didn’t benefit from noble privilege • Liberalism was defined by freedoms – freedom of speech, religion, and the press • Liberalism stressed constitutional monarchies • Liberalism stressed meritocracy – value in what you achieve, not who you were born to

24. Liberalism • Only France with Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter • And Britain with its Parliament & historic rights had realized much of the liberal program in 1815

25. Economic Liberalism • Opponents of liberalism criticized its economic principles which called for unrestricted private enterprise & no government interference in the economy • Known as Laissez-faire • Often called Classic Liberalism in U.S. in order to differentiate it from modern American liberalism which usually favors more government programs to meet social needs & to regulate the economy

26. Economic Liberalism • This type of classical (economic) liberalism, was supported by business groups & became a doctrine associated with business interests • Businessmen used the doctrine to defend their right to do as they wished in their factories. • Labor unions were outlawed because they supposedly restricted free competition & the individual’s “right to work”

27. Nationalism • Hotbeds were in Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire • Argued that each people had its own genius & its own cultural unity • Glorified the past and culture of unified groups • Sought to turn the cultural unity that they felt into a political reality

28. Nationalism • Complex industrial urban society requiring better communications: standardized national language • When a minority population grew large, a nationalist campaign for a standardized language often led to a push for a separate nation-state

29. Nationalism • Between 1815-1850, people who believed in nationalism, believed in either liberalism or radical, democratic republicanism. • Liberals & democrats saw the people as ultimate source of all government • Early nationalists believed every nation, like every citizen, had the right to exist in freedom, to develop its own character and spirit • Once this was achieved, then a symphony of nations would promote the harmony and unity of all peoples

30. Nationalism • Early nationalists stressed differences among peoples • Strong sense of “We” & “They” • A sense of national mission • A sense of national superiority • Early nationalism: ambiguous • Below the surface lurked ideas of national superiority, national mission • These ideas could lead to aggression & conflict

31. Utilitarianism • The greatest good for the greatest number. • Normally associated with liberalism – the greatest numbers were non-nobles • Jeremy Bentham – father of • Said government should only interfere in people’s lives to bring order and harmony • John Stuart Mill said the role of the government is to help people achieve happiness • Mill’s On Liberty and On the Subjection of Women outlined utilitarianism and feminism

32. French Utopian Socialism • They were aware that the political revolution in France, the rise of laissez-faire, and the emergence of modern industry were transforming society • They saw these as fomenting selfish individualism & splitting the community into isolated fragments • Urgent need to reorganize society to establish cooperation & new sense of community

33. French Utopian Socialism • 3 principles of early French Utopian Socialism • Economic planning (emergency measures of 1793-94) • Intense desire to help the poor; rich and poor should be more equal economically • Private property should be regulated by the government/or abolished and replaced by state or community ownership • PLANNING, GREATER ECONOMIC EQUALITY, STATE REGULATION OF PROPERTY!

34. Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) • Key to progress was proper social organization! • Parasites: court, aristocracy, lawyers, churchmen must give way to the • Doers: leading scientists, engineers, industrialists • Who would carefully plan the economy, guide it forward with vast public works projects, establish investment banks • Every social institution ought to improve conditions of the poor

35. Charles Fourier (1772-1837) • Self-sufficient communities of 1,620 people living communally on 5,000 acres devoted to combination of agriculture & industry • Women should be totally emancipated • Critical of middle-class family life • Marriages only another kind of prostitution • Young women “sold” to men for their dowries • Abolition of marriage/ Free unions based only on love & sexual freedom • The socialist link to liberation of women may have hindered the women’s movement in future

36. Louis Blanc (1811-1881) • Wrote Organization of Work • Urged workers to demand universal voting rights • Take control of the state peacefully • Government-backed workshops & factories to guarantee full employment • Right to work as sacred as any other right

37. Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-65) • Wrote What is Property? • Nothing but theft • Property was profit stolen from the worker, who was source of all wealth • Different from socialists in that he feared the power of the state • Often considered an anarchist

38. Early French Utopian Socialism • Message was linked to the experience of French urban workers • Memory of radical phase of French Rev. • Its efforts to regulate economic life & protect the poor • Skilled artisans who believed in guilds came to oppose laissez-faire laws that denied workers the right to organize and promoted brutal, unrestrained competition instead

39. Marxian Socialism Karl Marx: (1818-1883)

40. Karl Marx • The Communist Manifesto: “the history of all previously existing society is the history of class struggles” • Ridicules early socialists as naïve to appeal to the middle-class and the poor • Interests of these two classes were inevitably opposed to each other

41. Karl Marx • One class had always exploited the other • With modern industry, society now clearly more split • Middle-class: bourgeoisie • Modern working class: proletariat • Bourgeoisie had triumphed over feudal aristocracy • Marx predicted that proletariat would conquer the bourgeoisie

42. Karl Marx • How would this happen? • Bourgeoisie was tiny minority: they owned the means of production • As this tiny bourgeoisie grew richer, the proletariat would continue to grow in size & in class-consciousness • Portion of the bourgeoisie would join the proletariat as “they raised themselves to the level of comprehending theoretically the historical moment”

43. Karl Marx • The critical moment of takeover of the means of production by the proletariat was very near • “The ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE”

44. Karl Marx • Marx stressed that the bourgeoisie historically, “has played a most revolutionary part” • During its rule of less than 100 years, it had created more massive and more colossal productive forces than all preceding generations together.

45. Karl Marx • Ideas united sociology, economics and all human history together • Combined French utopian schemes, English classical economics, German philosophy, Engels’ critique of the oppressive factory system, Proudhon’s view of labor as the source of all value • His doctrines seemed to be based on hard facts

46. Historical evolution • Georg Hegel: (1770-1831) German philosopher • Each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas: thesis • Opposing ideas challenge this: antithesis • Eventually new idea is accepted: synthesis • Synthesis evolves into new thesis • Historical evolution will again challenge the thesis and so on

47. Historical evolution • According to Marx, it was now the bourgeoisie’s turn to give way to the socialism of revolutionary workers • Thing about Marx’s theory: appeared the irrefutable interpretation of humanity’s long development • In other words, revolution of the proletariat was inevitable • Created one of the great secular religions out of the intellectual ferment of the early 19th c

48. Romanticism • Early romantic German philosophers • Sturm and Drang (Storm and Stress) • Tremendous emotional intensity • Suicides, duels to the death, madness, strange illnesses all characterize leading romantics • Artists typically led bohemian lives, wore long hair • Rejected materialism

49. Romanticism • Driven by sense of unlimited universe • Yearning for the unattained, the unknown, the unknowable • Nature: they were enchanted by it • “A blade of grass is always a blade of grass; men and women are my subjects of inquiry.” • Nature as beautiful and chaste • Saw modern industry as ugly, brutal attack on their beloved nature & human personality

50. Romanticism • Fascinated by color and diversity • Turned toward history with passion • Key to universe was now organic & dynamic • Not mechanical & static as the Enlightenment had been • Historical studies promoted growth of national aspirations