Media in intergroup relations

1. Media in intergroup relations Implications for society

7. Categorization • Though rarely discussed, the first and necessary step in the development of group evaluations (including prejudice) is the definition/social construction of a group or category of people • All categories are in some sense constructed • Race is a socially-defined category • No clear genetically-based races exist • The basis for category may be biological, ideological/cultural, personality-related • Membership may be assigned or chosen

8. Categorization • No categories, even the most “obvious” are completely valid. Some degree of social construction always exists. • Sex (gender) • Race • Class • Religion • Occupation • Nationality

9. Categorization • The more distant from a biological basis group membership becomes, the more “constructed” groups can be considered • “Ideological work” must be done to make categories “real”--that is, to give them meaning

10. Excess meaning • Categories take on meaning beyond the original characteristics and/or reasons for their formation • In-group bias • Formation of the “other” • Function/power value of representations

11. Excess meaning • Groups are assigned characteristics that go beyond those in the original definition • Powerholders have an advantage in “naming” • Characteristics found in some individuals are assumed to be universal within the group • Group actions are interpreted • “Psychologizing” interpretations • Group conflict • Assignment of blame to groups

12. A hierarchy of categories • Categories are assigned a position relative to each other • Relative importance (salience) • situational salience • social/historical salience • Relations among categories • “cross pressures” • mutual reinforcement

13. Note: assigned characteristics may be false • Groups may be perceived in a false light • Misinterpretation of behavior, actions • Majority, power groups need for explanation that jibes with social action either by ingroup or outgroup • Widespread distribution of biased depictions • economic logic of media representations • Slight group tendencies can be magnified by the categorization process • Blaming the victim

14. Assignment of group characteristics to individuals • “Stereotyping” • The belief that individuals will exhibit traits assigned to the category or group • Group characteristics are assumed to be inherent in “typical” group members • Overprediction from statistical tendencies • Tversky and Kahneman • “Resonance” a la Gerbner • “Function” of individual-level explanations

15. Attribution • Assigned group characteristics and consequent assumptions about individual based on their perceived membership in a group serve as explanations for social events and actions • “Psychologizing” tendency in the U.S. • “Fundamental attribution error” • Blaming the victim

16. Categories have social influence • Subject is called upon to locate herself as either a member or nonmember • Processes of bias in information processing and in behavior seem to be nearly automatic • Theorists have tended to assume anti-outgroup biases, but pro-ingroup may be more valid • Original actions may lead to spiraling effects • Sherif

17. Media theory and “others” • Political economy • Power groups control means of societal communication, manipulate content in favor of prejudice, etc. in ways that help to maintain their position. Powerful prevent marginalized groups from gaining access to the media.

18. Political economy (theory 2) • Working of the market favors portrayals that cater to popular prejudices. Marginalized groups cannot develop economically viable media. Those with money will not invest in unprofitable ventures (or those with low return on investment) that would cater to marginalized groups. • not enough people/money to make advertising to them worthwhile

19. Critical cultural study • The definition of the “other” serves to justify the distribution of power and wealth, reassure the majority and to adjust minority groups to their fate. Political/social discussion takes place within presupposed “truths,” including the nature of categories of people. • “Otherness” allows the majority to explain inequality, ignore legitimate demands and blame victims for their own victimization.

20. Mainstream, liberal pluralist approach • Media depictions have a varied impact on prejudice, with effects both supporting and opposing stereotyping. • Prime-time depictions reflect rather than drive cultural forces • Media portrayals range from negative stereotypical to liberatory depictions • Critique of white racism • Invisibility

25. Positive effects of media • Diffusion of information on race/sex, etc. topics • Pressure on government to address discrimination • Media campaigns against racism • Modeling of positive intergroup associations, attitudes and behaviors

26. Positive effects of media • Production and dissemination of content opposing racism • Exposure of hate crimes, etc. • Depiction of groups in non- or counter-stereotypical ways • Preservation of subcultures • Development of community among group members • In-group solidarity

27. Negative effects of media • Stereotypic characterizations • Many content analyses have identified sexist, racist, etc. depictions • Generation of a culture of prejudice • Viewer acceptance of images • Reduced concern over the plight of minorities

28. Negative effects of media • Depiction of “causes” of group troubles • “Explains” poverty, health and crime problems, lower status jobs, etc. • Modeling of intergroup prejudice, discrimination and even violence • Depictions may have antisocial effects if perpetrators are attractive, rewarded, etc.

29. Potential unintended effects • Acts to legitimate categories, maintain and disseminate meaning attached to them • Introduction of categories, associated meaning to cultures, societies where they do not currently exist • Influences on self-conception • Imposition of positive/negative evaluations • Choice of affiliations according to social evaluation of groups

30. Potential unintended effects • Depiction of inherent, basic, unending conflict between categories • Does in-group bias lead to discrimination without prejudice? • “Boomerang” effect of providing support to racist/sexist ideas as content is “selectively” attended to, interpreted, etc. • All in the Family

31. Questions of categorization and media • Do media depictions lead social beliefs, follow, both or neither • nature of depictions • What impact do media have in cognitive and behavioral group interactions? • Is media fare “read into” a set of socially structured interpretations based on categorization?