19th Century Nationalism and the Crimean War

1. Nationalism 19th Century

2. Crimean War • Background to Crimean War • Nicholas I—Tsar of Russia • Rigid conservative • Fear of revolution • Maintain legitimacy (Holy Alliance)

3. Focal Point of Conflict: Anglo-Russo • Survival/dissolution of Ottoman Empire • Control of Bosphorus and Dardanelles • Fate of Christians in Turkey

4. Russia and Persia: • 1826: Persia denounced Treaty of Galistan (1813) which gave Russia vast territories between Black and Caspian seas • 1827: Russia took Erivan and marched on Tehran; • 1828: Treaty of Turkmanchoi: Russia gets Persian provinces and allowed to put Russian navy on Caspian Sea

5. Russia and Turkey • 1826: Russo-Turkish Akkerman convention • Moldavia and Walachia get autonomy • Serbia—guaranteed privileges granted earlier • Russian sovereignty in disputed Caucuses Territories • Russian merchantmen: free passage on Straits

6. October 1827: Anglo-French-Russian naval forces in Bay of Navarino (Ionian Sea)—destroyed Turkish fleet • Constantinople demands compensation and apology—gets none • Declared jihad against Christian powers

7. June 1828: Russia invaded Ottoman’s Danubian principalities and defeated Turks • By August, 1829, Russia approaching Constantinople • September 1829: Treaty of Adrianople: Russia gets mouth of Danube; territories in Caucuses; right of passage confirmed; Moldavia and Walachia: indep. Gov’ts under Russian protection

8. Ottoman Empire

9. 1833: Russo-Turkish alliance • In response to Egyptian rebellion against Ottoman empire—Western powers do not help, so Sultan turns to Russia • Russian war vessels invited into straits Feb-April, 1833, and land 10,000 troops • Russia looked poised to invade and sparked alarm in both Turkey and West

10. July,1833: Secret Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi: between Russia and Ottoman empire • 8 year treaty: ‘eternal peace’, alliance and friendship guaranteed • Existing Russo-Turkish agreements confirmed • Russia tries to maintain independent Turkey

11. No access of foreign vessels of war to the Dardanelles • Russian troops immediately withdrawn from Turkey • {West thought a secret clause allowed Russia the right to send warships through Straits—it did not} • France/GB did not recognize treaty

12. 1833-1848: Russophobia in West • Belief that Russia had designs on India • 1839: Egyptian-Turkish hostilities resume • Turkey soundly defeated; European powers feared Russian intervention: five powers meet to discuss options

13. 1841: Straits Convention • Confirmed “ancient rule” to close straits to war vessels in time of peace • France too close to Egypt, and not told about meeting until terms had been signed • French relations become strained • Nicholas I hopes GB will help to restrain revolution in Europe

14. 1844: Nicholas visits GB • Meets w/Foreign Secretary Earl of Aberdeen • Maintain status quo in Turkey • If Turkey dissolved, GB/Rus were to reach preliminary agreement on the new order • Nicholas believes it is binding • Aberdeen: mutual opinion

15. Revolutions 1848 • Alarmed Nicholas I—massed troops on the border to invade Europe, but did not • Nicholas I and Nesselrode (GB) try to save Austrian monarchy • Russia lent $/diplomatic assistance to Austria in struggle w/Italian provinces

16. Russia helped to repress Hungarian Revolution • 1848-1849: War between Austria/Hungary: Russia sends 180,000 troops into Hungary • Russia suffers heavy losses, but Austria victorious by August

17. Russia also desired • Maintenance of framework of German Convention • Check German nationalism—assoc. w/Prussia and liberalism • Russia traditionally close to Prussia, but blocks attempts to lead German states • Holy Alliance weakened

18. Crimean War 1854-1856 • Dispute over Holy Land • Conflict centuries old; Catholics and Orthodox fought over rights to protect Christian shrines and populations in Holy Land • For decades (from Louis XVIII to Louis Philippe) Catholics had little interest in Holy Land • Orthodox step in

19. 1850: Louis Napoleon requests restoration of Catholic rights, guaranteed by existing treaties, these rights: possession of the key to the great door of the Church of Bethlehem; and right to replace silver star marking Christ’s birthplace; had been taken over by the Orthodox

20. Church of the Nativity

21. Turkey conceded French claims and at same time assured Russia that the existing situation remained unchanged • 1852: strong pressure from Paris resulted in formal grant of French demands • Nicholas did not accept diplomatic defeat

22. 1853: Alexander Menshikov dispatched to Constantinople • Russia wants secret treaty ensuring all Orthodox laymen and churches in Ottoman empire be placed under Russian protection • Turkey refused • May-July, 1853: Russian troops occupy Danubian principalities w/out declaring war

23. GB/France weighed anchor at entrance to Dardanelles • September, 1853: enter Straits • October, 1853: Turkey declares war on Russia • December: battle of Sinope: Russia destroyed part of Turkish fleet • GB/Fr sailed towards Black Sea

24. April 1854: General War declared • Turkey • Great Britain vs Russia • France • Piedmont-Sardinia • Russia gets no help from “Holy Alliance”

25. Naval action in four areas: • Baltic Sea • White Sea • Pacific Ocean • Black Sea—three fronts: Danubian principalities, Crimea, Caucuses • No rail n-s in Russia; poor roads • Could not supply troops • Allies controlled Black Sea

26. Danube taken by Russia in 1853 • Austria promises to ‘hold’ Danube for Russia, but withdraws in September 1854 • September 1854: 300 Transports and 90 War vessels carried 60,000 allied troops to Crimea • They begin 11 month siege of Sevastopol

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28. Result of war: Russia has some success: taking of Kars • Mostly, it was a war of attrition w/great loss of life • Battle of Balaklava: Charge of the Light Brigade • 250,000 allied forces died • 600,000 Russian forces died • Florence Nightingale--nursing

29. 1854: Vienna Conference: 4 point program: • European protectorate over Moldavia, Walachia, Serbia—not Russia • Freedom of navigation on Danube • Revision of 1841 Straits Convention • Christians in Turkey protected by five powers, not only Russia

30. Russia does not accept this until Austria threatens military action unless Russia agreed to peace • Feb. 1856: Paris Peace Conference • Accepted 1854 proposals • Russia recovers Sevastopol for Kars • Ceded Moldavia, Bessarabia, mouth of Danube to Turkey

31. Russia prohibited from maintaining naval and military establishments on Aland Islands (by Finland) • Black Sea is neutralized • Russia/Turkey denied rights to maintain navies there • Russia is angry—begins breakdown of Concert of Europe • Austria untrustworthy—no friends in Europe

32. Unification of Italy • 1815 Congress of Vienna gave Lombardy and Venetia to Austria • Austria brutally suppresses reform demonstrations • Italians want Austrians out • 1820, 21 Carbonari: Society of Charcoal Burners organized from middle class

33. Revolts in Naples, Turin failed • Many carbonari exiled/imprisoned • 1831: Giuseppe Mazzini, a carbonari, founded Young Italy • Broad-based people’s movement to unite and free Italian Republic by revolutionary means • Mazzini also most effective member of the Risorgimento

34. Young Italy not very successful, but Mazzini’s writings were: • Nationalistic: National identity important for unification • Nation State : political organization w/one nationality • Vincenzo Gioberti: 1843; On the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians Federated monarchy w/liberal constitution; Pope as king

35. Balbo: newspaper editor: unite Italy under strong king (Charles Alberti of Piedmont) • Main obstacle to unification was Austria • 1848: Mazzini inspired nationalists to lead republican revolution in Sicily • Other European uprisings inspire Charles Alberti

36. Alberti declares war on Austria • Naples, Tuscany, Papal States send troops, but had little training and few supplies; troops withdraw and Alberti’s army is defeated • Italian nationalists angry w/pope; November 1848, pope flees as republicans take over Rome and establish a Roman Republic, led by Mazzini

37. Pope Pius IX calls on Louis Napoleon, Naples, and Spain to aid him • Louis Napoleon sent French army to restore order and Papal authority in Rome • Unsuccessful defense of Rome by Giuseppe Garibaldi led to retreat by Mazzini

38. Lessons of 1848: • Mazzini’s republic a failure • Federation under pope also bad idea—no interest in unification • Piedmont the only hope: Charles Albert steps down; Victor Emmanuel becomes King of Piedmont

39. Victor Emmanuel brings in Camillo Cavour as financial minister • Unification of Italy main priority from 1848 on • Cavour was industrialist, banker, landowner • Favored free-trade and enterprise • Politically, he supported limited monarchy after Austria gone

40. Economically, Cavour promoted modernized state: improved roads, Democratic reforms, railroads introduced Cavour saw need for foreign aid to get rid of Austria—he supported Fr/GB in Crimean War

41. WHY??? 1855-56 Stalemate Allies need fresh troops for war They ask Cavour to send troops into war w/Russia France agrees to pay for Italy’s supplies GB sells weapons cheaply Cavour can stash weapons for war against Austria w/Crimean War

42. Prior to 1848: Italy has not battle-trained troops • Opportunity to learn battle-training w/best armies against the best army in Europe • “In the mud of Crimea we will create a united Italy.” • 20,000 troops in Italian contingence sent; w/in months, Russia surrendered

43. Italy invited to Paris Peace Conference • Claims equality w/warring nations • Gets nothing for Italy • Makes friends w/Napoleon III—reminds him of his role as carbonari • Cavour’s cousin becomes Napoleon III’s mistress • Cavour gets invite to Napoleon’s resort in Plombieres

44. 1858: Plombieres Agreement • Secret meeting: Napoleon III promises to aid Piedmont in expelling Austria • Piedmont to get North/central Italy • France to get Savoy and Nice • NOW, Cavour needs war w/Austria

45. Cavour supports anti-Austrian groups in Lombardy • Leaks news of French-Piedmont agreement • Holds war-games on Austrian border • Austria tells Piedmont to stop military build-up • Piedmont refuses

46. April 29, 1859: Austria attacks Piedmont • Piedmont fends off Austria until France arrives • Railroads used for first time in history to transport troops quickly • They win two battles: Magenta and Solferino • Road to Vienna wide-open

47. Napoleon III wanted to become field officer at Solferino: he sees battlefield and hears screams of dieing, blood, etc. He becomes violently ill; can’t do this to another man; • He approaches Austria for peace treaty • July 8, 1859: Villa Franca—Napoleon III signs peace treaty

48. Does not tell Cavour about it; • Napoleon secured Lombardy but not Venitia; Cavour is furious • Napoleon wants to be paid • Cavour agrees to give him Nice and Savoy, but not to put Pope on the throne • Cavour tells all city-states that they were sold out;

49. City-states (Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Romagna) revolt against their rulers and vote to voluntarily join Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont • How to get the South to join? • Ferdinand II of Naples died and was replaced by his inexperienced son, Francis II; Conditions were ripe for revolution

50. Garibaldi was the man for the job. • Joined Young Italy; inspired by Mazzini; 1830 uprising found him exiled to South America, where he learned guerilla fighting tactics • 1860: returned to Italy; Cavour supports Garibaldi w/ funds; Garibaldi collected 1000 volunteers in Genoa and landed an expedition in Sicily