ASS.Lec . Suad Turky Ali Lec -6-

1. AL-Ma’moon University CollegeMedical Laberatory techniques Department Clinical biochemistry / Second stage ASS.Lec. SuadTurky Ali Lec -6-

2. The sources of glucose:

3. The sources of glucose: • 1. Exogenous:liver,muscle,diet. • 2. Endogenous: • Proteins,stored liver glycogen, and other noncarbohydrates like (glycerol, lactic acid, in the body.

4. Q. why atp is important molecule? • it is important because it is of high energy compound because of the phosphoanhydride bonds holding the terminal phosphorylgroup.adp+pi=atp

5. pyruvate is the final product of glycolysis • final product of glycolysis is: • 2nadh,2pyruvate, and 4atp, so the net yield is 2atp per each glucose molecule. • the (5) and (10) reactions repeated twice. • kinase:an enzyme that transfers a phosphoryl group between atp and another molecule.

6. Pyruvatekinase deficiency: which catalyzes the final reaction of glycolysis , decreases hemoglobins oxygen affinity through an increase in 2,3, bisphosphoglyceratephosphatase concentration.(BPG). • Mitochondria is the house of energy. • ATP is the currency of the energy. • Acetyl coa IS the central pathway of the metabolism. • Acetylcoa carries two acetyl groups • Acetyl from carbohydrates, fatty acids, proteins, or some amino acids. • Acetylcoa is the precursor for fatty acids and several amino acids, cholesterol,and other steroids. • Oxidative phosphorylation is a series of reactions that couples the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 to the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.

7. CYTOCHROMES : they pass electrons from one to the next. • What is the function of mitochondria? • Mitochondria: are the organelles responsible for aerobic respiration , they have enzymes that carry out the final oxidations of carbohydrates, amino acids, and fatty acids.they produce the majority of the ATP for the cell.

8. Mitochondria is the house of energy. • ATP is the currency of the energy. • Citric acid cycle: is the final pathway of metabolism and it is considered as amphibolic pathway because it consists of anabolism and catabolism pathways. • Each NADH GIVES 3ATP, Each FADH2 gives 2ATP. • Much energy is released when the glucose molecule oxidized completely to CO2 and H2O , so the total of ATP is 36 • Molecules.

9. Ketone bodies are the preferred energy source of the heart. • Glucose is the major source of energy of the brain. • Brain alone consumes from 5-6 grams of glucose per hour. • Like the heart, the brain does not contribute to the energy requirements of other organs or tissues. • Under normal conditions, the brain uses glucose as its sole fuel. • Because its stores little glycogen . • The brain is highly dependent on a continuous supply of glucose in the blood. • Under conditions of prolonged starvation ,the brain can adapt to using ketone bodies as an energy source. • Ketosis is the accumulation of ketone bodies in blood, like acetoacetic acid, they are produced from fat in the liver.

10. What are ketone bodies? • Acetoacetate,D-BETA-hydroxybutyrate,and acetone, these compounds are produced from acetylcoa by the liver for use as metabolic fuels in peripheral tissues. From which pathways the ATP can be synthesized by the cell? 1.they are two pathways:,one in cytoplasmfrom substrate-level phosphorylation. 2. From mitochondria from oxidative phosphorylation tom produce large number of ATP from glucose molecule. Write an equation to represent the last step of the electron transport system. • Answer: • Phosphoanhydride bond: • Inorganicphosphate group:

11. What is the function of the liver? • 1.helps regulate the blood glucose level. • 2. Storage excess glucose in the blood. • What is glycogen? • Glycogen is a highly branced glucose polymer, is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles.

12. THANK YOU