Television history

1. Television history United States

2. Television broadcasts begin in the USA • In 1939 RCA sells television sets with the promise of 15 h of broadcasts daily through NBC • NBC and CBS begin regular TV broadcasts in New York in 1939 • National Television System Committee (NTSC, 1940): 525 lines • FCC: commercial broadcasting may begin on 1.6.1941→ Commercial television broadcasting begins in the USA • 22 permits are granted but only 7 companies begin operation • War halts all but technical development • After the war 15 television stations begin broadcasting

3. The expansion of television in USA • Newsweek in1948: “Television is spreading like a disease” • 1949: two million sets sold • 1951: twenty million sets sold • 1959: fifty million sets sold, more than 600 television stations in operation

4. Live or recorded? • At first live broadcasting is thought of as the essence of the medium and ”telefilms” as bastard forms (their production is outsourced) • Recording is at first inhibited by the need to store great quantities of information. • Workable video equipment available from 1956 • Lightweight cameras gradually become available • Proper editing equipment available from 1963 • Hollywood procedures adopted allowing for serial production and synergy with film industry • Soap-operas are broadcast live as late as 1975 • Certain programme formats retain live (or as if live) quality • “Awkwardness” in shooting soap operas and sitcoms still functions to maintain the impression of live broadcast (Jeremy Butler)

5. Development and adaptation of technical standards – colour technology • RCA (NBC) held several VHF patents • CBS could offer a UHF colour system already in 1946 • Sarnoff makes a big issue about compatibility • In 1950 FCC approves of CBS colour standard • CBS had no manufacturing capacity →CBS’s first colour broadcast is seen only through some two dozen sets – “invisible show” • 1953 FCC reversed its decision in favour of a NTSC standard for which RCA controlled most patents • Technical problems prompt Time to call colour- TV the most resounding industrial flop of 1956. • Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Colour becomes a hit in 1961 → next year RCA announces a million dollar profit from sales of colour sets • RCA makes a million dollar profit selling colour TVs

6. The three colour systems • NTSC (National Television System Committee ): USA, Japan • PAL (Phase Alternation Line) Western Europe • SECAM (Système Électronique Avec Mémoir) France, Eastern Europe

7. Social and cultural role of television • Networks promote the idea of commercial broadcasting as a guarantee of individual freedom comparable to democratic elections • “Advertising on television will be a potent educational force, and consequently will be almost as much value to our American way of life as the entertainment itself.” (NBC director) • “First we have an obligation to give most of the people what they want most of the time. Second, our clients, as advertisers, need to reach most of the people most of the time. This is not perverted or inverted cause and effect, as our attackers claim. It is one the great strengths of our kind of broadcasting that the advertiser’s desire to sell his product to the largest section of the public coincides with our obligation to serve the largest cross section of our audience.” (William Paley, CBS)

8. Guarding morals • Programmes were to be“domestically acceptable” • “Because the visual impression is apt to be more vivid and detailed and because to be understood it requires less imaginative response on the part of the observer than does an auditory impression, television must be much more carefully supervised if it is to avoid giving offence. This means that vulgarity, profanity, the sacrilegious in every form, and immorrality of every kind will have no place in television. All programmes must be in good taste, unprejudiced, and impartial.” (NBC guidelines, 1945) • Code of Practices for Television Broadcasters (1951) • “The Communist Party – through its secret members, its fellow travellers, its dupes and sympathisers – will have control of every word that goes out over the air waves.” (Martin Berkley: ”Reds in Your Living Room”,1953)

9. Trash or …. • ”Only occasionally … does the entertainment seem almost mediocre.” (Life, 1947) • ”I hate what they’ve done to my child. I would never the let my own children watch it.” (Vladimid Zworykin, TV pioneer) • “We seem to be watching, for the hundredth time, the traditional development of an American art-enterprise: an incredible ingenuity in the mechanism, great skill in the production techniques – and stale unrewarding, contrived and imitative banality for the total result.” (Gilbert Seldes, 1949)

10. “I can assure you that you will observe a vast wasteland …. a procession of game shows, violence, audience participation shows, formula comedies about totally unbelievable families, blood and thunder, mayhem, violence, sadism, murder, western bad men, western good men, private eyes, gangsters, more violence, and cartoons. And, endlessly, commercials.” (Newton Minow, 1955) • ”The problem with television in this country is that commercial television makes so much money doing its worst, it can’t afford to do its best.” Fred Friendly

11. … a golden age? (R.D: Heldenfels) • Comedians such as Lucille Ball, Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis, Bud Abbott ja Lou Costello • Disneyland’s Davy Crocket • Annie Oakley, “the first TV western starring a woman.” • Medic, “A classic medical series much admired for its realism” • Father Knows Best (according to Heldenfels one of the all time best television comedies) • Quality TV drama • Leonard Bernstein’s TV appearances • Edward R. Murrow and Joseph Welch disclose the outrageousness of Joseph McCarthy’s claims

12. Ideas about television drama • Script writers should take into account the limitations of the shooting: scenes should take place almost exclusively in small interiors and include max. 3-4 actors. • Directors should limit themselves to close-ups. [NB: the most common framings in TV production are medium shots and medium close-ups] • Many critics noticed that television drama was characterised by intimacy which allowed for character development. • ”The style of acting in television is determined by the conditions of reception: there is simply no place for florid gesture, the over projection of emotion, the exaggeration of voice or grimace of movement inside the average American living room.” (Gilbert Seldes,1950)

13. Practices of American television broadcasting Prime time / fringe hours Series /serial Target group / programming: Saturday morning cartoons for children, afternoon soap operas for housewives etc. Least objectionable programming: attempting not to alienate any part of the audience Block programming: similar programmes one after the other on the same evening Hammocking: a less popular programme inserted between two popular ones Counter-programming: broadcasting different kind of programme than the popular programme of another network

14. Networks and affiliates • The network pays for the afifliates for broadcasting programmes (network compensation) • The network collects the advertising revenue for this broadcasting time • The affiliate • is payed for broadcasting the network programmes • is able to have quality programming • can sell advertising time for local business (1 min/h)

15. National Association of Television Program Executives - NATPE • “A global, non-profit organization dedicated to the creation, development and distribution of televised programming in all forms across all mature and emerging media platforms.” • “develops and nurtures opportunities, both commercial and educational, for buying, selling and sharing of content and ideas.” • Agenda at the first formal meeting in 1964 • The Network’s Relationship to Local Programming • Where Do You Find Talent? • Government’s Influence on Programming • Successful Formats for Handling Politicians & Political Issues

16. Practices outside the networks • Syndication: the practice of selling rights to the presentation of television programs, especially to more than one customer such as a television station, a cable channel, or a programming service such as a national broadcasting system – can be a worldwide operation • Off-network syndication: The first run of a program has been on a national network, then the program is marketed for subsequent runs to other programmers. • First run syndication: shows produced specifically for the local stations and not seen on the networks. (Bay Watch failed after its first season on NBC but became enormously successful as a FRS production)

17. The main genres on American television • Variety shows • Television drama • Talk shows • Game shows • Westerns • Police & detective series • Sitcoms • Soap • Miniseries • Docudramas

18. Famous American television serials • The Ed Sullivan Show (originally Toast of the Town, CBS 1948-1971) • I Love Lucy (CBS, 1952-57) • The Flintstones (ABC, 1960-64) • The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (NBC, 1962-92) • The Monkees (NBC,1966-68) • Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (NBC, 1968-73) • 60 Minutes (CBS, 1968- ) • The Mod Squad (ABC, 1968-73) • All in the Family (CBS, 1971-79) • M*A*S*H (CBS, 1972-83) • Saturday Night Live (NBC, 1975-) • Charlie’s Angels (ABC, 1976-1981) • Soap (ABC, 1977-81) • Roots (ABC, 1977) • Holocaust (NBC, 1978) • Hill Street Blues (NBC, 1981-87)