EXCHANGES, CHANGES AND COLLAPSES:

1. EXCHANGES, CHANGES AND COLLAPSES: INTERACTIONS AT THE END OF THE CLASSICAL AGE

2. THE CLASSICAL WORLD

3. WARFARE • External Collapse: Foreign Wars • Nomadic Invasions • Huns in Mediterranean, Persia, India • Kushans in India • Central Asians (Xiong-nu) in China • Agriculturalist Migration leads to war • Germans migrated into empire to avoid Huns • Romans too weak to resist German take over • Great Power Wars • Rome (Eastern Roman Empire) and Sassanids • War lasted on and off two hundred years • War exhausted both empires • Eastern Roman Empire bribed Germans, Huns to go west • Internal Collapse: Civil Wars • In Rome • Rival generals seeking to gain emperorship • Conflicts between Arabs under Zenobia, Monophysites in Egypt with Romans • In China and India • Rival dynasties struggle to reestablish control in China, India • Often exacerbated by nomadic invasions • Results • Depopulation of many areas; Destruction of agriculture • Loss of trade as warfare, piracy stop flow • Spread of diseases

4. LAND AND SEA ROUTES

5. OCEAN TRADE NETWORKS • Trade regulated not controlled by locally dominant states • Most merchants accepted an unwritten code of conduct • Trade was largely peaceful and protected by dominant powers • Powers cooperated to protect against pirates • The Indian Ocean to China Trade Network • Based on the monsoon patterns • NE Winds blow ships towards India, SE Asia • SW Winds blow ships towards Arabia, Africa • Intricate System of stopovers, entrepots required • Indian Ocean divided into three zones • Western zone dominated by Arabs, Persians, Ethiopians • Middle Zone between India and SE Asia dominated by Indians • Eastern Zone from SE Asia to China dominated by Chinese • Major ports called entrepots at exchange points along divisions • Goods exchanged tended to be luxuries with exception of rice, wood • Trade in the Hellenistic Mediterranean • Dominated by Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Jews, later Arabs • Besides various commodities, also slave trade • Links to Indian Ocean network through Egypt, Ethiopia

6. LAND TRADE ROUTES • Most famous called Silk Road • Overland trade routes linked China to Mediterranean basin • Sea-lanes joined Asia and Mediterranean basin into one network • Trade goods • Silk and spices traveled west • Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China • Mediterranean provided glassware, jewelry, art, perfumes, textiles • The organization of long-distance trade • Trade Diasporas • Ethnic groups settled along trade routes who handle trade between stops • From one end to another one ethnic group facilitated trade • Merchants tended to be Armenians, Nestorians, Jews • Merchants of different regions handled trade in stages • Similar to Indian Ocean to China trade network • Controlled, protected most of length by Central Asian nomads • Many smaller routes connect to Silk Road • Arabs controlled desert routes into Arabia between Egypt, Persia • Arameans, Nestorians control much of SW Asia • Bactrians, Sogdians, Kushans control routes into India • Romans Trade Imbalance • Romans loved luxuries but had few finished goods others wanted to trade • Romans forced to trade their gold, silver to buy goods

7. CULTURAL EXCHANGES:BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM • Buddhism in Central Asia • First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads • Further spread to steppelands • Spread by merchants traveling from India to China • Hellenized Bactrians, Kushans heavily influenced by Buddhism • Buddhism in China • Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, 1st century B.C.E. • Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, 5th century C.E. • Many early conversions during time of troubles in China • Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia • Spread by Hindu merchants; later Buddhist missionaries • Conversion of local ruling elites so they could control lucrative trade • Rulers referred to themselves as rajas ("kings") • Adopted Sanskrit as written language • Many rulers converted to Buddhism, others promoted Hindu cults • Buddhist or Hindu advisors in government • Rise of new civilizations due to influence: Khmer, Srivijava, Mahajavit • Many of first Christian “heresies” were Buddhist influenced

8. SPREAD OF INDIAN FAITHS

9. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

10. FORMS OF BUDDHISM

11. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY • Christianity in the Mediterranean basin • Built upon existing Jewish, Phoenician, Greek trading areas • First converts poor, women, merchants attracted by Christian message • First converts often at lowest end of social pyramid • Leading Christian cities (Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Rome) • Christian communities flourished especially in areas connected to trade • Paul of Tarsus visited mostly trading areas; was followed by many others • Ephesians, Corinthians, Thessalonians were all trading areas • Apostles, missionaries used protected trade routes to move about • Mark converted Egypt by tradition • Christianity in Southwest Asia • Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran by 2nd century C.E. • Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the 7th century C.E. • Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire • St. Thomas by tradition carried Christianity to trading cities of S. India • Monophysites – Another Interpretation of Christianity • A Christian sect developed in southwest Asia • Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, 5th century C.E. • Copts of Egypt and Ethiopia emphasize his divinity • Armenians, Georgians, Egyptians, Ethiopians 1st nations to convert • Condemned by General Church councils as a heresy • Strong influence in Arabia, possibly influencing Muhammad • Communities in central Asia, India, and China, 7th century C.E. • Tended to be trusted because had no official states to support, protect them

12. CULTURAL CHANGES IN MEDITERRANEAN • Prominence of Christianity • Constantine's edict of Milan made Christianity a legitimate religion • Called Council of Nicaea to solve conflicts within Church (Nicene Creed) • Ordered a book (byblos) to be complied of agreed upon Christian works • Emperor Theodosius made Christianity official state religion, 380 C.E. • St. Jerome translated Bible into Latin • St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought • St. Ulfias converted Germans to Arianism • The institutional church • Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians • No one dominant belief about Christianity • Current belief was an outgrowth of compromise, discussion • Many early schisms and controversies • Donatists: should those who adjure Christianity be allowed to return • Arians: Christ is solely human • Monophysites: Christ is divine, human; each part is separate, one is dominant • Established standardized hierarchy of church officials • Bishop of Rome (Pope) became spiritual leader (Petrine Doctrine) • Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople patriarchal cities • After Rome, Christianity served as a cultural foundation

13. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

14. SPREAD OF MANICHAEISM • Mani and Manichaeism • Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and Buddhism • Perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil • Offered means to achieve personal salvation • Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards • Differentiation between "the elect“ and the "hearers" • Spread of Manichaeism • Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region • Special appeal to merchants as hearers • Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, 3rd century C.E. • St. Augustine was one of the most prominent who practiced it • Persecutions • The Sasanid (Persian) rulers suppressed Mani's movement • Roman authorities also persecuted Manichaeans • Manichaeism survived in central Asia

15. SPREAD OF MANICHAEISM

16. SPREAD OF EPIDEMICS • Pandemic vs. Epidemic • Epidemic is a disease which strikes all groups in one region • Pandemic is a disease which strikes simultaneously many regions • Often spread by war, trade, missionaries • Epidemic diseases • Common epidemics in Rome and China • Smallpox, measles, bubonic plague • Mediterranean: population fell ¼ from 1st to 10th century C.E. • China: population fell ¼ from the 1st to 7th century C.E. • Persia, Ethiopia effected; India seems to have been missed • Effects of epidemic diseases • Chinese and Roman economies contracted; trade stiffled • Small regional economies emerged • Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires

17. FALL OF THE HAN DYNASTY • Internal decay of the Han state • Problems of factions and land distribution • The Yellow Turban rebellion, 184 C.E. • Collapse of the Han dynasty • Generals usurped political authority, emperor was a puppet • By 220, generals abolished Han, divided empire • Nomadic peoples invaded, further dividing old Han Empire • Cultural Change in Post-Han China • Sinicization of nomadic peoples • Withering of Confucianism • Confucianism failed to maintain order; too aristocratic • More individuals turned to Daoism, Buddhism: both offered hope • Daoism changed to a religion of salvation • Popularity of Buddhism • Buddhism received strong support from nomadic rulers • Between 4th/6th centuries C.E., Buddhism well established • Buddhism often supported by nomads, lower classes, women • Many made donations of land, money to Buddhists • Buddhism merged with Chinese traditions: became religion

18. THREE KINGDOMS

19. INTERNAL DECAY OF ROME • Barrack Emperors • Between 235 and 284 C.E., generals frequently seized the throne • Most barracks emperors died violently in coups, assassination • The sheer size of the empire became a problem of control • Emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) • Divided the empire into two administrative parts • Western Roman Empire ruled from Rome • Eastern Roman Empire ruled from Nicomedia • Tetrarchy: Rule by Four • Two Emperors called Augustus; basically political emperor • Two Associated rulers called Caesars: basically war emperor • Reforms saved empire for 200 years • Froze social classes; created feudalism • Persecuted Christians to unite empire • Reformed Roman army and defenses to fight invaders • The emperor Constantine • Constantine seized power, claimed to be sole emperor • Established a new capital city • Constantinople on Bosporus • Area was richer, easy to defend, more Christian; better base of power • Legalized Christianity through Edict of Milan

20. COLLAPSE IN INDIA • Guptan Dynasty • Lacked strong central government • Provinces only owed tribute, tax, respect to central ruler • Provincial rulers viewed emperor as related to gods • But local areas largely self-governing • Relied on provincial rule, type of feudalism • Regional leaders often stronger than emperor • Dynasty’s worries • Civil war between regional leaders • Invasions by Central Asia including White Huns • Beaten off by Guptans but seriously weakened empire • Continued raids by Huns, Central Asians kept empire in turmoil • Large scale migrations from Northern India to Southern parts • Dynasty ceased to exist; attempted revival failed • Regional states broke off, constant warfare follows • Harsha’s Revival did not last • Rajput (Northern Princes) warfare disrupted region

21. GUPTAN EMPIRE

22. NOMADIC INVASIONS • Germanic migrations • From northern Europe, lived in eastern, northern parts of empire • Most notable were Goths • Visigoths settled in Spain, S. France; Ostrogoths settled in Italy • Settled as agriculturalists, mercenary soldiers and allies of Rome • Created a modified law of German tradition and Roman law • Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer • The Huns • Called Xiong-nu by Chinese; Chinese defeated them, sent west • Huns invaded Roman Empire • White Huns invaded India • Black Huns invaded Persia • Under Attila, Huns began expeditions from the mid-5th century C.E. • Soon disappeared after the death of Attila in 453 C.E. • The collapse of the western Roman empire • Under Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples moved into Roman empire • Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa • Goths and Vandals sacked Rome on two separate occasions • Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E. • Imperial authority survived in eastern half of empire (Byzantines) • Nomadic states in Western Europe, North Africa

23. INVASIONS AND MIGRATIONS

24. WHAT REMAINED? • Cosmopolitan Culture • Most of the areas retained their faith, social structures • New faiths often served to preserve old ways • Most areas retained idea of former classical ways as an ideal • Most disruptions to top hierarchy especially aristocrats, rulers • Interregional Contacts • While not eliminated were often severely lessoned • Regions tended to fall back on themselves, older traditions • Which collapse was worse? • Roman was very severe because it was so dramatic • Eastern Empire survived but it was no longer Latin • New rulers were radically different from previous rulers • Christianity was relatively new, different from older Latin traditions • Sassanid collapse worst; culture disappeared under Islam • Indian, Chinese collapses was hardly noticed • Traditions remained; elites remained often running new local states • Ancient religious hierarchies often still in place locally, nationally