United Kingdom

1. United Kingdom AP Comparative Government

2. Great Britain “This fortress built by Nature for herself, Against infection and the hand of war, This happy breed of men, this little world, This precious stone set in the silver sea, Which serves it in the office of a wall, Or as a moat defensive to a house, Against the envy of less happier lands; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.” • Richard II – William Shakespeare

7. Sovereignty, Authority, & PowerUnited Kingdom • Social Compacts & Constitutionalism - Traditional Legitimacy- most British acknowledged the concept of a hereditary line of monarchs as the rightful ruler until late 17th century - Divine Right - British crown has slowly forfeited their power over Parliament and the people : - Magna Carta- signed by King John after excessive taxes forced the nobles to create Representative body (Parliament) - English Bill of Rights- signed by William and Mary handing over majority of power to Parliament in regards to most issues including power of the purse (Parliament gained rights, not individuals)

8. Sovereignty, Authority, & PowerUnited Kingdom • Social Compacts & Constitutionalism - Common Law- legal system is based on local customs and precedent rather than formal legal codes - developed slowly over time and is now incorporated in many nations which have British influence (including USA) - allows courts and public officials to constantly update or reinforce principles for governance

9. Sovereignty, Authority, & PowerUnited Kingdom • Historical Evolution of National Political Traditions - Monarchy/Parliamentary Control- slow hand-off of power from the throne to the people including English Civil War, Glorious Revolution, and first Prime Minister - Industrial Revolution- transition from feudal system and into mercantile system; rural to urban for employment opportunities; led to change in representation to include them in decision making - Colonialism- sparked by industrialization and nationalism, spread across the globe from 1750-1914; slowly eroded due beginning with American colonial independence; later India & Africa - Modern Britain- vast difference from 1900 to 2000 in terms of place in world scene (WWI, WWII, US emergence, 1970’s economic issues); Conservative Capitalism vs. Labour Welfare State

10. Sovereignty, Authority, & PowerUnited Kingdom • Political Culture - Influences of Geography - Island allows for a protective barrier historically from mainland Europe - Small geographic size is a limitation in regards to natural resources (main cause for imperialistic tendencies) - Little fertile soil present problems with feeding a growing population over history - Climate is temperate but rainy (more population in south region) - Island has no restrictions in terms of barriers to travel (homogenous culture)

11. Sovereignty, Authority, & PowerUnited Kingdom • Political Culture Social Class- feeling of responsibility exists for upper class to support lower classes; left over from remnants of feudalism (lords & serfs); reflected in adoption of “welfare state” (National Health Service); feeling has lessened over time Legitimacy- evidenced by British willingness to obey the law; smaller police force than most other advanced democracies; a must with common law

12. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYUnited Kingdom • Social Cleavage- Multi-National Identities • Made up of four (4) different original nations: -England- largest region; majority of population; carry huge political clout -Wales-west of England; fell to English king in 16th century; mild resentment of English wealth -Scotland- incorporated into English rule through intermarriage of crown (James I); agree to single Parliament in early 1700’s; maintain strong sense of nationalism -Northern Ireland- joined UK shortly after WWI due to Protestant majority (unlike rest of Catholic Ireland); IRA; 1949 finally established Irish sovereignty instead of home rule Today the idea is to integrate the nationalities into the country as a whole, but at the same time allow them to keep their old identities (kept old flags)

13. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYUnited Kingdom • Social Cleavages- Class • The British Class system is perpetuated by the British educational system • Public schools (called private schools in the U.S. ) • Social elites who often go to Eton for secondary school and then Oxford and Cambridge (which has graduated 1/2 of Conservative MPS), and trains mainly for public service • Grammar schools (Called public school in the U.S. ) • middle-lower classes, 25% of Britons plan on attending college Cleavage is generally accepted and preferred to the alternative (your people, your neighborhood)

14. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYUnited Kingdom • Social Cleavages- Gender • No significant gender gap in voting; young women vote the least and so politicians often try to win the female vote • "Blair's Babes": large number of female Labour MPs elected in 1997

15. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYUnited Kingdom • Social Cleavage- Ethnic Minorities • Mostly young (Half under 25) and from former British colonies (India, Pakistan, Caribbean, Africa) - Attempts to thwart the influx of new immigrants seem aimed at non-Europeans (EU regulations) - Muslim minorities by category - distinct minority/majority cleavage( European majority) - social class (Muslim poverty/ lack of endearment) - Pakistani Muslims (al Qaeda connection) - Iraqi War opposition (less since withdrawal in 2009) - Lack of Integration (relative to other countries) Harder to break into a culture that is so homogenous

16. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYGreat Britain • Status of Efficacy • The English, though having higher voter turn outs than we do, are generally considered to have less political efficacy than Americans, partially because the government is more sequestered amongst the elites and there is no significant local government, although this is beginning to change. • Also, elections are only held every five years in Britain, so although there is a larger voter turnout than in the U.S., British citizens are still not able to get involved in elections as often as American citizens.

17. Role of Interest Groups There are hundreds of interest groups. However, there is little lobbying done by them (unlike those in the US). The fewer interest groups with a direct influence on the law making process has lead to a corporatist system (groups try to maintain good relationships with members of the House of Commons, especially with party leaders and ministers). The influence of British interest groups depends on being able to shape the bill, not how it's dealt with on the floor of House However, during the Thatcher years, many interest groups and unions were completely shut out of the decision making process. Even as the Labour Party took power in the 1990’s, the government distanced itself from the interest groups, relying more on dynamic corporations. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYGreat Britain

18. CITIZENS AND SOCIETYGreat Britain • Development of political elites • The roots of the Conservative Party lie in the nobility. • Originally it was an elitist organization • However, during the latter party of 20th century the members of the Conservative Party took on the responsibility of helping the poor, supporting a welfare state where a primary goal of the government was to keep the economy healthy. Many of the original ideas resurfaced under Thatcher (anti- collective and redistribution)

19. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain Adjusting to the Industrial Revolution Great Reform Act of 1832- expanded voting rights immensely; shifted the power in Parliament from HOL to HOC Reform Act of 1867- expanded electorate to 3 million as working class participation was allowed Representation of the People Act of 1884- made majority of the voters working-class citizens Women’s Suffrage- addition of women to the electorate; timing is reflective of US 19th amendment

20. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain “Common Man” Voting Impact House of Lords/ Commons- due to afore-mentioned enfranchisement of working class, HOL was relegated in early 20th century to only a mechanism of political delay (essentially unicameral in practice) Labour Party- born simultaneous to the presence of the working man vote, the party gave a voice to relevant issues for that demographic (labor unions, public education, housing, jobs, medical, etc.); party is often very militant in their tactics, but has softened with time under new leadership Forced liberals out of the top two parties; Conservatives began relying on middle-upper class businessmen for support

21. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain Losing Imperialistic Powers Post WWII- in contrast to WWI, WWII inflicted a great deal of damage to the infrastructure of Great Britain, causing a re-evaluation of their management of imperial strongholds in Asia and Africa End of an Era- Britain’s abandonment of their colonial interests came in order to address financial concerns at home; in most cases Britain somewhat prepared territories for independence and parted on good terms (ensuring economic and political collaboration in the future) Foreign Policy- Britain’s post-war recoil brings in a new era in foreign policy as they navigate international affairs as a supporting character for much of the 20th century (USA v. Russia); torn since between new alliance with USA and old traditional European alliances

22. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain Collective Consensus Impact of Churchill- united both parties under the prioritization of winning WWII; “collective consensus” lingered post-war as nation adopted a bipartisan approval of the welfare state Welfare State- began with passage of the Beveridge Report (insurance for health, unemployment, pension, etc.) and continued with National Health Service (Labour Party) and survived under Conservative leadership as well Mixed Economy- government directing the economy (nationalizing major industries while maintaining privatized property)

23. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain Economic Crisis of the 1970’s Declining Economy- less industrial production coupled with international changes (decolonization) led to abrupt turn for the worse in Britain’s economic health OPEC- devastated the economy through rapidly rising oil prices due to embargos (led to inflation, unemployment, and lower productivity) Political Divide- Labour and Conservative totally radicalize and split ways; massive backlash against Labour Party results in the election of Conservative Margaret Thatcher as PM

24. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain Thatcherism Neoliberalism- reversion back to traditional Conservative ideals; blamed socialist agenda of post-war Britain for economic collapse; She led the charge to revolutionize Britain’s economic policies Policies- privatized business and industry; cut back on social welfare programs; strengthened national defense; tough on labor unions; market economy Although Thatcher resigned in 1990 (after 11 years), her ideals have remained ingrained in British economic policies to this day.

25. Political and Economic ChangeGreat Britain Tony Blair Third Way/ “Big Society” John Major- carried on Thatcher approach in moderation (slowed social cutbacks) Tony Blair- re-emergence of Labour Party and promised a “third way” (centrist alternative to left and right); popularity faded after supporting Iraq War Gordon Brown- couldn’t right the sinking ship of Labour Party; economic crisis of 2008 was nail in the coffin David Cameron- coalition government PM (Conservatives and Liberal Democrats); promised “big society” (grassroots activism and private sector dominance)

26. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Linkage Institutions Political Parties- origins were “Whigs” and “Tories” under Charles II (18th Century) Whigs- originally indicated opposing the crown; eventually became known as the Liberal Party Tories- originally indicated support for the crown; eventually became known as the Conservative Party King Charles II

27. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Labour Party - main party on the left - began as an alliance of trade unions and socialist groups - have moved toward the “center” since the 1990’s - was the majority party from 1997 to 2010 - generally more supportive of EU membership Party Leaders: John Smith (1993-94), Tony Blair (1994-2007), Gordon Brown (2007-2010), Ed Miliband (2010-present) Conservative Party - main party on the right - split between traditional wing (rule by elite class/ EU supporters) and “Thatcherites” (roll back government and totally free market minded) - most tend to see EU as a threat to British sovereignty - formed coalition government with Liberal Democrats in 2010 to gain defacto majority Party Leaders: Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990), John Major (1990-97), David Cameron (2005-present)

28. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Elections - only national officials that British voters select are MP’s - elections must be held every five (5) years for Parliament, but can be called earlier Officially power to dissolve Parliament belongs to the Crown, but the PM performs this task in actuality (done when support for the party is high) Parliament

29. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Plurality Electoral System - Parliamentary district elections are winner take all with no run-offs (like U.S.) - “First Past the Post” implies that no majority is needed to win - Party Leaders usually run from “lock” districts; neophytes are run as sacrificial lambs in losing districts Creates huge influx of reps from major parties with little to no reps from upstart parties (regional parties perform better)

30. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain United States Elections - parties are less powerful - members must live in districts - PLs must run in their respective districts - individual votes for four officials on the national level - between 30% and 60% of the eligible voters vote - elections are “first past the post, single – member districts - almost no minor parties get representation British Elections - parties determine who runs where - members usually do not live in their district - PLs run in “safe” districts - individual votes for only one official on national level - about 70% of eligible voters actually vote - elections are “first past the post”, single- member districts - minor parties get some representation, but not much

31. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain President (U.S.) - elected every 4 years by electoral college - elected as President - gridlocks with Congress on legislation often - cabinet members usually not from Congress - expertise in policy area basically mandatory for appointment Prime Minister (U.K.) - serves only as long (s)he remains leader of the majority party/coalition - elected as a MP - has excellent chance of getting legislation pushed through Parliament - cabinet members are always MPs from majority party/coalition - cabinet members not experts in areas (rely on bureaucracies)

32. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Parliament - the majority party is the winner of the plurality (no majority actually needed) - “loyal opposition” made up of minority party - Party Discipline- majority party needs to keep support and avoid “vote of no confidence” Vote of no confidence is grounds for cabinet resignation; huge incentive to vote “along party lines” - backbenchers have begun to rebel against PLs of own party (John Major- EU policy, Tony Blair- Iraq War) House of Commons

33. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Parliamentary Powers - debate and refine legislation - become PLs and head up government - scrutinize administration of laws - communicate between voters & ministers House of Lords- largely hereditary; can delay bills and amend legislation (can be overruled by simple majority in HOC)

34. Political InstitutionsGreat Britain Bureaucracy & Judiciary - Bureaucrats often outlast cabinets and offer stability to government - Judiciary does not have equal clout with Parliament ( parliamentary sovereignty) - Common Law- the concept of precedents to dictate law - In 2009 a Supreme Court was created to replace the “law lords” of the HOL as the highest judicial authority of the land (cannot declare acts of Parliament unconstitutional) - judges have reputation for independence from politics (expected to retire by 75) In future, British judges will have to maintain balance between UK and EU legislation British Supreme Court

35. Public PolicyGreat Britain Issues Facing Current Coalition Government in Britain include: - evolving relationship between government and the economy - transparency in government - relationship with European Union - terrorism and cohesion - relationships with the U.S. - devolution and constitutional reform

36. Public PolicyGreat Britain Government & Economy • historically, Britain has adhered mainly to the economic approach know as liberalism, or political/economic freedom for individuals • collective consensus mentality of much of 20th century ushered in era of more government involvement (Keynesian) • “Big Society” reinstitutes much private sector involvement to combat growing deficits in the current recession

37. Public PolicyGreat Britain Michael Martin Former Speaker House of Commons Transparency in Gov. • 2009 Parliamentary spending scandal ended long term of apparent transparency in British government • Brown called for end to “gentleman's club” persona of Parliament • Caused many British citizens to call into question the trustworthiness of their elected officials (loss of some legitimacy)

38. Public PolicyGreat Britain Relation with EU • did not enter Common Market in 1957 when it was originated (precursor to EU) • Britain has maintained an independent currency (pound) instead of full-fledged integration into the euro • Continue to vote for more anti-EU candidates in European elections from the UK Independence Party

39. Public PolicyGreat Britain London Transit Bombing 2005 Terrorism and Violence • 2005 London transit bombings killed 52 civilians and changed scope of “terrorism” (IRA to Islamic Fundamentalist) • Civics lessons in the educational system have been implemented for British Muslim students about non-violence (heavily controversial) • Straddling the fence on cohesive British culture vs. identifying potential internal threats is an evolving hurdle for government

40. Public PolicyGreat Britain Relationship with U.S. • Blair set out in 1997 to simultaneously increase Britain’s influence and centrality in Europe while keeping a strong, post WWII relationship with the U.S. • Blair’s vision (and popularity) dissipated after the support of U.S. involvement in Iraq in 2003 (alienating European powers like France and Germany) • The two head up coalitions to tackle international problems (outside the realm of U.N.) Tony Blair & Bill Clinton

41. Public PolicyGreat Britain Devolution and Reform • over the past 40 years, a trend towards devolution has been taking place in Britain • Began legally forming in ‘99 when Scottish and Welsh created own assemblies (deal with education, taxes, economic planning) with NI following in 2007 • Also has given city of London an identity in and of itself (not just center for national affairs) • Others reform topics: proportional representation, written BOR and Constitution, new electoral system, and freedom of information Devolution Map