Class 15: Tell Me a Story: Suppression, Disclosure, and Coping

1. Class 15: Tell Me a Story: Suppression, Disclosure, and Coping NOTE: QUIZ 2 POSTPONED TO APRIL 11

2. A Story Telling Species

3. Serendipity and Scientific Discovery: Pennebaker’s Inhibition and Illness Hypothesis • Communication studies: People like groups more when they get to talk more. • Polygraph (lie detector) studies: Liberation through confession 3. Personal Experience: Asthma and parents; relief about marital problems; career problems through writing James Pennebaker

4. Suppression Suppression is ACTIVELY, CONSCIOUSLY hiding or not- showing arousing thoughts and/or feelings. -- Upset in argument with boss, don't want to show it -- Stifling a fit of giggles in church. -- Attracted to someone, but don't want to be obvious Suppression is NOT repression, which is done unconsciously. Suppression = intentionally hide thoughts/feelings from others Repression = unconsciously hide thoughts/feelings from self Dan Wegner "White Bear" studies -- Rebound effect -- Effect stronger for arousing content (sex vs. dean)

5. Effects of Disclosure on Health, Survey Samples

6. Inability to Discuss Childhood Trauma “I had always been close to my mother. If she had known what [my stepfather] was doing to me, it would have broken her heart. I wanted to tell her so much.” “Looking back on it all, the very worst thing was that I couldn’t talk to my mother anymore. I had to keep a wall between us. If I wasn’t careful, the wall might crumble and I’d tell her everything.” NOTE: Those who report trauma have more health problems than other groups in survey.

7. Inhibition and Illness Model 1. Inhibiting thoughts and feelings is stressful 2. In short term, suppression leads to physiological arousal. 3. Over the long term, suppression leads to immunocompromise. 4. The result is increased susceptibility to a wide range of illness.

8. Catharsis Insight * Emotional buildup causes stress. * Release pent-up emotions (catharsis) releases stress. * Language provides an outlet for venting pent up emotions. * Uncompleted problems are emotionally arousing. * Uncompleted tasks stay alive until finished. Sounds like?: * Language helps people get “closure” on unfinished business. Catharsis vs. Insight Zeigarnik Effect

9. Initial Test of the Inhibition of Health Model Pennebaker & Beal, 1986 Subjects (n = 46) assigned to one of four writing conditions: 1. Thoughts and Feelings (Insight) 2. Emotions only (Catharsis) 3. Facts only (Suppress) 4. Trivial topics (Control) Conditions 1-3 write about some past, negative event. Condition 4 writes about trivial, non-emotional topic Subjects write on four consecutive days, 15 minutes each time.

10. “Insight Writing” Instructions “I want you to write continuously about the most upsetting or traumatic experience of your entire life. Don’t worry about spelling, grammar, or sentence structure. In your writing, I want your deepest thoughts and feelings about your experience. …. Ideally, it should be something you have not talked about with others in detail. It is critical, however, that you let yourself go and explore those deepest emotions and thoughts that you have. Your choice of trauma for each session is up to you.

11. Types of Traumas Disclosed • Parents’ divorce: “Son, the problem with me and your mother was having kids in the first place. Things haven’t been the same since you and your sister’s birth”. 2. Responsibility for grandmother’s death. 3. Molestation by grandfather, at age 13. 4. Hiding sexual orientation from parents “Family abuse, alcoholism, suicide attempts, public humiliation were frequent topics” Southern Methodist University

12. Pennebaker & Beale (1986) Results Immediate Moods: Thoughts & Feelings (T&F) lowest Health Center visits over 6 months: Thoughts & feelings = 0.5 visits All other groups = 1.5 visits Long term coping (after 4 months) T& F higher on: * Moods * Optimism * Self-reported health

13. Disclosure and Immunocompetence Pennebaker, Kiecolt-Glaser, & Glaser, 1988 Questions: 1. Are initial disclosure and health findings "real"? 2. Does disclosure improves immune functioning. Method: Same as initial study, but: 1. Just two groups Thoughts and Feelings vs. Control 2. Write 20 min., over 4 days Blood samples taken at: 1. Day one of study 2. Last day of writing 3. 6 weeks after study ends Use "mitogen test" -- bodies that stimulate antibody production

14. Disclosure and Immunocompetence(continued) Results: Which group produced more antibodies to mitogen? X Thoughts and Feelings Control group Role of Insight: 80% of T&F writers report insight-related benefits (perspective shift, new ideas about self, etc.) Quality of Writing: Writing that improved health was: 1. More emotional 2. Images and analogies 3. Clear organization: Beginning, middle, end.

15. Other Disclosure Studies Show: Disclosure  Higher T-Cell count  Improved antibody response to Epstein-Barr  Improved antibody response to Hepatitis B Improved management of chronic illness: Diabetes Asthma Other chronic illness Effect replicated in scores of studies, by many different researchers

16. Bonanza Model of Writing and Traumatic Recovery

17. Intra-Psychic Benefits of Writing Tulving, Paivio dual code systems of memory a. Episodic – imagistic, holistic, emotional, self-relevant, chronologically organized—"analog" b. Semantic – fact-based, non-emotional, category based, elemental rather than holistic – "digital" Work of emotional assimilation is converting episodic into semantic. Writing (and verbal disclosure) promote this psychological digestion. a. Dissolves phenomenal whole into semantic bits. b. Associates traumatic experience with existing memory and beliefs. c. Consider the "unpacking" of semantic network

18. Emotional Disclosure and Social Connections If negative emotions disrupt connections, and If disclosure resolves negative emotions, Will disclosing negative thoughts and feelings advance social connections? 1. Make people more forgiving? 2. Make people less likely to blame victims?

19. Disclosure and Forgiveness Harber & Wenberg, PSPB, 2009 Betrayal—Bad. Very bad. Severs social ties Forgiveness Less depression, anxiety; improved health  Improved life-satisfaction; self-image Forgiveness requires first addressing underlying emotions Problem: How address emotions in absence of offender? Ben Franklin’s solution: WRITE

20. Emotional Disclosure and Closeness Towards a Friend, an Acquaintance, or a Betrayer Harber & Wenberg, 2009 Recall a Person Acquaintance Betrayer Write About Person Facts only (Suppress) Thoughts & feelings (Disclose) Four Experimental Conditions 1. Acquaintance / suppress 3. Betrayer / Suppress 2. Acquaintance/ disclose 4. Betrayer / Disclose

21. Closeness as Index of Forgiveness HOW CLOSE DO YOU FEEL TOWARD THE PERSON YOU WROTE ABOUT? S = SELF O = OTHER S O S O S O S O O O S S O S Inclusion of Other in the Self scale (IOS) Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992.

22. Emotional Disclosure and Closeness Towards a Betrayer vs. an Acquaintance Harber & Wenberg, 2009 But what about friends?

23. Emotional Disclosure and Closeness Towards a Friend, an Acquaintance, or a Betrayer Harber & Wenberg, 2009

24. Emotional Disclosure and Closeness Towards a Betrayer, an Acquaintance, or a Friend Harber & Wenberg, 2009

25. Quantity and Quality of Disclosure Predicts Closeness, but Only for Betrayers Total words written  Closeness r = .52, p < .05 Positive emotion words  Closeness r = .33, p < .15 Angry words  Closenessr = .45, p < .05 Does disclosure affect perception of those whose actions did not directly affect oneself?

26. Where There’s a Victim, There’s Victim Blaming Secondary assault: Morals, judgment, right to sympathy Interpersonal costs: Self-silencing, distrust Psychological costs: Self-blame, anxiety, depression, PTSD

27. Victim Blaming as Emotional Management Victimization Threatens Just World Beliefs Disturbing Emotions Blame Victim Disclose Emotions Beliefs Restored Emotions Abate Victims NOT Blamed Emotions Abate

28. Disclosure and Victim Blaming Design Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015 Subjects: n = 57, 77% female, age = 21.55 (5.35) Cover Story: “Time Delay and Recall” Film Clip: The Accused (victim) Margaret Thatcher (non-victim) Writing Task: Disclosers — Thoughts and feelings Suppressers — Target’s features Outcome Measure (1 week later) Criticism of victim / non-victim (poor judgment, inept, irresponsible, immoral).

29. Sample Disclosures Disclose The movie made me incredibly nauseous and freaked out Oh my Jesus, that was horrible! Suppress There was a girl at the bar drunk and was by herself ... . There is music playing in a dark bar Victim Disclose ...some woman named Maggie fighting about the budget Suppress The video...was about a woman named Maggie Maggie wanted a fair deal Non-Victim

30. Criticism of Victim vs. Non-Victim, Due to Emotional Disclosure: Study 1 Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015

31. Disclosure and Victim Blaming, Study 2 • 1. Study 1 reliable? • 2. Does disclosure affect only victims, or anyone involved in disturbing assault—victimizers and victims? • 3. Does disclosure affect blaming by men and women equally? Subjects: n = 90, 49% female, age = 21.00 (5.63) Design: Same as Study 1, except: 1. Adversary blaming: The men—aggravated event, made event worse, fostered event, got carried away, were bad (α = .91) 2. Gender effects: Equal numbers men/women per condition

32. Criticism of Victim vs. Non-Victim, Due to Emotional Disclosure: Study 2 Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015

33. Blaming of Victim vs. Assailant, Due to Emotional Disclosure: Study 2 Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015

34. Blaming of Victim Due to Emotional Disclosure and Participants’ Gender: Study 2 Harber, Podolski, & Williams, 2015

35. Distress Disclosed Moderates Blaming “General Distress” = Upset + Intensity (α = .96) STUDY 1: Conveying distress reduced victim blaming Distress Victim Blame, r (8) = -.55, p = .10 STUDY 2: Conveying distress reduced victim blaming Distress Victim Blame, r (15) = -.44, p = .08 But induced attacker blaming Distress Attacker Blame, r (15) = +.41, p = .10

36. Conclusions Emotional disclosure moderates social judgment * Promotes forgiveness * Reduces victim blaming Confronting emotions appears to be key: * Disclosing anger  closeness * Disclosing distress  less blaming Founding Fathers know best: Freedom of Speech Pursuit of Happiness More Perfect Union(s)

37. Taboo, Suppression, and Sublimation Cohen, Kim, & Hudson, 2014 “So, a Protestant, a Catholic, and a Jew walk into a social psych experiment….”

38. Sublimation: Translating the Forbidden Thoughts or Impulses into Socially Acceptable Behavior Managing the Forbidden: Protestants vs. Catholics and Jews 1. Thinking sinful thoughts as bad as sinful acts 2. No rituals of expiation, of atonement 3. Salvation through work; “Protestant Work Ethic”

39. Cohen et al. Sublimation Prediction: If Protestants regard taboo thoughts as sinful, and If work, deeds only sanctioned way to expiate sin, and if (per Freud) creative work offers “safe” outlet for taboo thoughts, then: Faced with sinful thoughts, Protestants will produce more creative work

40. Terman Study Subjects’ Creative Accomplishments Related to Religion and Taboo-Related Anxiety

41. Cohen et al. Study 1 Design Subjects: Males with sisters, who are Protestant, Catholics or Jews Activity 1: Provide captions to photo albums supposedly of “You and Your Sister” Set 1: Toddlers on vacation Set 2: Youngsters at family holiday Set 3: You and sister on holiday cruise, as late teens OR You and girlfriend are on holiday cruise “Sister” / Girlfriend is plain OR “Sister” / Girlfriend is bikini model Activity 2: Subject do creativity task. a. Write poems b. Make clay sculpture Judges blind to conditions rate creativity of performance

42. Religion and Sexual Sublimation

43. Religion and Aggressive Sublimation