CH 511 – The History of Christianity 2

1. CH 511 – The History of Christianity 2 UNIT FOUR Slides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez

2. The Medieval Sacramental System

3. Transubstantiation • Defined by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1215 • CLASSIC DEFINITION: The conversion of the whole substance of the bread and wine into the whole substance of the Body and Blood of Christ, only the accidents (i.e. appearances) of the bread and wine remaining

4. Avignon Papacy

5. Celestine V and Boniface VIII

6. Conflict of ideals • Celestine V (r. 1294) aspired to reform the church through Franciscan simplicity; considered one of the humblest men to ever occupy the throne of St. Peter; he resigned the papacy after serving only five months and eight days • Boniface VIII (1294-1303) had Celestine imprisoned and may have had Celestine murdered • Not many were happy with Boniface’s election • The powerful Colonna family in Italy who had their own designs on the papacy • The extreme Franciscans (the “Fraticelli”) • Many saw Celestine’s election as a fulfillment of a prophecy announced by Joachim of Fiore that the “Age of the Spirit” had begun; Thus many did not accept his abdication

7. Boniface VIII (1294-1303) • The first part of his reign was successful • Dealt with the powerful Colonna family • Dealt with a rebellion in Germany • Held off the war between England and France • Declared a Year of Jubilee in 1303, granting a plenary indulgence to anyone who visited the tomb of St. Peter • Relations between Boniface and Philip of France grew tense • Issued a the bull Unam Sanctum which asserted papal claims to universal power, both ecclesiastical and political • After various mutual recriminations, Boniface attempted to excommunicate Philip in September 1303 • Boniface was kidnapped by his enemies (Sciarra Colonna and William Nogaret), on the eve of the excommunication, demanding his resignation

8. “The Slap of Anagni” • Boniface responded to the demand to resign by saying that he would “sooner die” • This response elicited a famous slap • Boniface was then beaten badly, humiliated and nearly executed; locals managed to secure his release after three days: He died in October 1303 of kidney stones

9. In the Aftermath of Anagni • The next pope, Benedict XI, restored the fortunes of many of Boniface’s enemies, but refused to try the former pope posthumously; died after brief pontificate (perhaps poisoned) • The “pro-French” party obtained an agreement from the cardinals on the election of Clement V • Clement never visited Rome even once; moved the papal curia to Avignon, France in 1309 • Clement agreed to try Boniface posthumously; though Boniface was exonerated • Clement forgave Nogaret and his companions and commended Philip of France • Under Clement, the Templars were tried and condemned

10. The first Avignon Pope: Clement V (1305-1314)

11. The “Babylonian Captivity” of the Church • Clement V moved the papal curia to Avignon in 1309 • Clement had named twenty-four cardinals, all but one was French, and several were his relatives • For nearly seventy years the popes would generally remain in Avignon, and willingly serve as the tools of French policy

12. Avignon Popes • John XIII (1316-1334) – Elected at 72 and ruled for 18 years! • Benedict XII (1334-1342) – Built the great papal palace in Avignon; alienated England and Germany during the 100 Years War • Clement VI (1342-1352) – Tried to mediate the 100 Years War; many saw the Black Plague as divine punishment for the papacy’s absence from Rome • Innocent VI (1352-1362) – Attempted to return to Rome, but died before accomplishing it • Urban V (1362-1370) – Reforming pope; returned to Rome in 1365; the Romans received him with joy, but in the long run he failed to win their loyalty, so returned to Avignon • Gregory XI (1370-1378) – Made a cardinal by his uncle, Clement VI when seventeen

13. Catherine of Sienna (1347-1380)

14. Catherine of Sienna • Joined the “Sisters of the Penance of St. Dominic” (A tertiary order of the Dominicans) as a young girl • Two years later had a vision in which Jesus joined her in mystical marriage and ordered her to serve others • Became a famous teacher of mysticism, gathering around her followers (both men and women), some of whom were more educated than she; her Dominican followers kept her well versed in theological questions so that she could avoid heresy • In 1370, she had a vision in which she claimed that her mission was to restore the papacy to Rome; she set out on a pilgrimage to bring about peaceful resolution of many of Italy’s wars and feuds • Finally, in 1377, Gregory XI returned to Rome, ending the Babylonian Captivity; Catherine died three years later`

15. The Effects of the Avignon Papacy • Papacy had become a tool of French policies; other nations began to view the papacy as a competing “foreign power” • As a result, nationalism was on the rise in Europe; resentment towards the papacy • Revenues from unfilled vacancies poured into Avignon, France; no motivation to fill vacant posts or to move back to Rome • Simony once again became prevalent in the church; to this abuse was added the abuses of pluralism (the holding of more than one benefice or post), absenteeism, and nepotism

16. The Great Western Schism

17. Causes of the Great Schism • Gregory XI had actually considered returning to Avignon as conditions in Rome proved to be less than ideal; he died before he had the chance • The people of Rome feared that the majority of French cardinals would elect someone who would return the papacy to Avignon • Fearing that the French cardinals were planning to escape Italy, a mob invaded the place where the conclave met and demanded the election of a Roman or at least an Italian • Under duress, the cardinals elected the archbishop of Bari, an Italian, who took the name Urban VI; his coronation was one of great pomp in which all the cardinals, both French and Italian, participated

18. Urban VI (1378-1389)

19. The inflammatory reforming actions of Urban VI • In an effort to curb absenteeism, Urban declared all bishops who formed part of his court (i.e. not in their dioceses) to be “traitors to Christ” • He denounced the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and declared that those who received any gifts whatsoever were guilty of simony • In an effort to curb French influence, he appointed a vast number of Italian cardinals • Meanwhile, he appointed many of his relatives to positions of importance, thereby opening him up to the charge of nepotism • Many of his cardinals charged that Urban had gone mad, and began to form an opposition party against him

20. The plot against Urban • Both French and Italian cardinals joined the opposition against Urban, fled Rome and gathered in Anagni • There they declared that they had elected Urban under coercion and thus his election was not valid • They then proceeded to elect a new pope (the Italians present abstained, but did not protest), who took the name of Clement VII • Thus an unprecedented situation developed; for the first time there were two popes elected by the same cardinals • The new pope took up arms against Urban and attacked Rome; he was repulsed and resided in Avignon • All of western Europe would now have to take sides

21. Divided Europe Avignon Papacy Roman Papacy England Scandinavia Flanders Hungary Poland Holy Roman Empire (Germany) • France • Scotland • Castile & Aragon (at first supporters of Urban) • A number of German nobles who had reason to oppose the emperor

22. Divided Europe • Portugal changed allegiances repeatedly • In Italy, each city and each ruler followed its own course and changed allegiances as political factors dictated • The Kingdom of Naples sided with Avignon (for the most part)

23. Urban’s Mess • Catherine of Sienna devoted herself to Urban’s cause before her death; but Urban did not make things easy • Urban decided to created a principality for his nephew, and thus became embroiled in a series of senseless wars; when some of his cardinals suggested he change this policy, Urban had them arrested and they died of suspicious means • Urban died in 1389, and his cardinals elected Boniface IX • By taking the name Boniface, the new pope indicated that he would follow the anti-French policies of the earlier Boniface

24. Two Lines of Popes • The Great Schism went beyond the election of two competing popes to the election of their successors, and thus was created two competing lines of popes • The Great Schism encouraged ecclesiastical abuses, especially that of simony as the competing popes were always in need of funds

25. Papal Claimants during the Great Schism (1378-1417) Avignon Line (Anti-Popes) Roman Popes Urban VI (1378-1389) Boniface IX (1389-1404) Innocent VII (1404-1406) Gregory XII (1406-1415) Interregnum (1415-1417) Martin V (1417-1431) • Clement VII (1378-1394) • Benedict XIII (1394-1423) • Abdicated Three others not recognized by any nation: Clement VIII Benedict XIV (Bernard Garnier) Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier)

26. Proposal of the University of Paris (1394) Three possible solutions to the Great Schism: • Both Popes resign, and a conclave consisting of both sets of cardinals proceed with the election of a new one • Question be settled by negotiation and arbitration • A General Council be called to decide the matter

27. Charles VI of France attempts to intervene… • When Clement VII of Avignon died, Charles VI of France asked the Avignon cardinals not to elect a new one, hoping that he could convince the Pope of Rome to abdicate • The Avignon cardinals, feeling that their case could be weakened, went ahead an elected Benedict XIII anyway • Charles responded by besieging Avignon, but had to abandon the siege due to changing political fortunes • Meanwhile, the Roman popes began a series of maneuvers to make it appear that they wanted to end the schism • Both sides, however, refused to negotiate, which ended up alienating many of the cardinals on both sides • The Roman cardinals were the first to break with their pope begin negotiations with the Avignon Party; meanwhile France withdrew her support for Benedict • The stage was set for the “Conciliar Movement”

28. Conciliarism

29. The Call for a General Council • Not since the days of Constantine did the church place so much of hope on the convening of a universal council to settle the decades long Babylonian Captivity • As it began to be articulated in western theology, conciliar theory (or conciliarism) held that a universal council, representing the entire church, had more authority than the pope • The question was: who had the authority to call a council of the whole church? In the Western Church, councils were summoned by popes; in the Eastern Church, councils had been summoned by emperors • The difficulty was solved when cardinals of both parties issued a joint call to a great council to be held in Pisa in 1409

30. Council of Pisa (1409) • When the council gathered in Pisa, it had the support of both colleges of cardinals and well as most of the courts of Europe – a very hopeful sign that was soon to be dashed • Rather than try to determine who was the rightful pope, the council declared that both were unworthy, and thus both were deposed • The council then went on to deal with the issues of simony and other abuses • Meanwhile, the cardinals elected another pope who took the name Alexander V • Convinced that they had ended the schism, the council adjourned

31. And then there were three… • Most of Europe accepted the decisions of Pisa and the new pope, Alexander V • However, both rival Popes (Rome and Avignon) refused to accept the decisions of the council of Pisa, and both had enough support to insist on their claims • Alexander died less than a year after his election; the cardinals then proceeded to elect his successor, John XXIII

32. The Pisan Antipopes: Alexander V (1409-1410) and John XXIII (1410-1415)

33. The Intervention of Sigismund of Germany • John XIII found himself forced to flee Italy and seek asylum from Emperor Sigismund of Germany, who at the time was the most powerful monarch of Europe • Sigismund decided that it was time for another council to decide the issue once and for all, and required of John XXIII his agreement on the issue as a condition of asylum • John XXIII was to convene the council, which would gather in Constance in 1414

34. Council of Constance (1414) finally settles the matter… • By convening the council, John XXIII assumed that those assembled would support his claim to the papal throne; he was mistaken • The council was of a reformist mindset, and thus called for his resignation; John fled • John was a fugitive for months, but eventually captured, brought back to Constance and forced to resign; he was then condemned to prison for the rest of his life • Gregory XII, the Roman pope, resigned as he promised to do if his rivals did likewise • The council then elected Martin V • Benedict XIII refused to resign and took refuge in a fortress where he continued to claim his legitimacy; no one paid much attention to him; he died in 1423 • Benedict had up to three successors, though since their elections were dubious, he is considered the last of the Avignon line.

35. The Three Reforming Councils • The Council of Constance (1414) – attempted to reform the church, legislate against abuses, and rid the church of heretics; John Huss was condemned; Also decreed that councils should meet every ten years or so to continue the work of reformation • The Council of Basel (1431) – Called by Martin V, but dissolved by his successor, Eugene IV; it refused to adjourn and ended up electing an antipope (Felix V – gave up claim in 1449) • The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1439) – Eugene decreed the transfer of the Council of Basel to Ferrara (eventually to Florence); there the council attempted a formula of reunion between East and West as a condition for western aid to Constantinople

36. Waldensians

37. The Waldensians • Unlike other medieval heresies (e.g. the Cathars), the Waldensians originated in no conscious hostility to the church • Founder: Peter Waldo (more accurately Valdes), a wealthy merchant of Lyons; the name “Peter” was added by his followers of the late 14th century to link Waldo to the first apostle

38. Peter Waldo (c. 1140-1218)

39. Peter Waldo • Impressed by a song about St. Alexis sung by a traveling minstrel, Waldo asked a master of theology “the best way to God.” The theologian quoted him, “If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heave; and come, follow me” (Matt 19:21) • Selling all that he had, and making provision for his wife and endowing his daughters for life, he literally put this counsel into practice • He procured vernacular translations of scripture passages and the fathers and walked the streets preaching a life of repentance for the forgiveness of sins • Many thought he was mad, but he gained a following for his vita apostolica • He soon aroused the suspicion and hostility of the archbishop and clergy of Lyons; Canon law restricted preaching to clergy

40. Waldensians • Waldo and his followers appealed to the Third Lateran Council, who laughed at them as ignorant laymen but did not pronounce them heretics • Pope Alexander III applauded their devotion to poverty but denied them the right to preach without first securing permission from their bishop • At first they obeyed the restriction, but when permission was not granted they began to interpret the refusal of their right to preach as the word of man over against that of God • They were excommunicated in 1182 and expelled from Lyons • The “Poor of Lyons” made their way to NE France and into Germany, and southward into Lombardy • Condemned along with the Cathars in 1184 at the Council of Verona by Pope Lucius III

41. Foreshadow of the Protestant Reformation? • Waldensian beliefs: • The Bible, particularly the New Testament, was the sole rule of belief and life; every prescription must be followed to the letter • Preachers went out “two by two” in simple woolen robes, barefooted or wearing sandals cut in a special pattern • Preached repentance unto life; rejected all oaths and shedding of blood • Renounced marriage and all worldly goods; maintained themselves through contributions of their sympathizers (“friends”, “believers”) • Did not consider episcopal ordination necessary; woman as well as men were granted the right to preach • Lay celebration of the Lord’s Supper was permitted in regions where the sacrament was not readily available from a Catholic priest

42. The Waning of the Medieval Synthesis The Renaissance

43. The Renaissance • Meaning: “rebirth” – i.e. the rebirth of knowledge • Cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries • Flowering of art, science, literature, religion, and politics • Resurgence of learning from the classical period of Greek and Roman antiquity (immediate past considered the “Dark Ages”) • Intellectual transformation that swept Europe, widely considered the “bridge” between the Middle Ages and the Modern era

44. Characteristics of the Renaissance • Renaissance thinkers turned their gaze backward in historical time; not to the immediate past which was arrogantly assumed to be "dark," but to the classical past of ancient Greece and Rome, which they assumed was bathed in light • The Classic period was considered a “Golden Age.” Therein were found thinkers who had similar interests to the Renaissance thinker, and who had wrestled with identical problems • Increasingly, Renaissance thinkers would view the medieval synthesis as too formal, too compartmentalized, too confining; it was too logical, too systematic, too Aristotelian • The Renaissance would end up reacting strongly against the medieval synthesis -- against all “pigeon-holing”

45. Proto-Reformers

46. Two Types of Reform • One that addressed mainly moral and pastoral issues, such as simony and absenteeism (Conciliar Movement) • One that also sought to reform not only the life, but also the doctrines of the Church • John Wycliffe – 1328-1384 • John Huss (Jan Hus) – 1369-1415

47. John Wycliffe (Wyclif), 1328-1384

48. Wycliffe’s Resume • Little is known of his early life • Spent most of his career in Oxford, England; famous for his erudition and logic; not very good humored • In 1371, he left the university to serve the English Crown, first as a diplomat then as a polemicist • This was during the time of the Avignon papacy, so Wycliffe’s arguments on the nature and limits of lordship and dominion were well received by the English authorities

49. Wycliffe’s Position on Legitimate Dominion • All legitimate dominion comes from God • Dominion is to be characterized by the example of Christ, who came to serve, not to be served • Any dominion exercised for the profit of the ruler and not for the good of the governed (commonwealth) is not true dominion, but rather usurpation • The same is true of dominion that seeks to expand its power beyond the limits of its authority • Therefore, any supposed ecclesiastical authority that collects taxes for its own benefit, or seeks to extend its power beyond the sphere of spiritual matters, is not legitimate • Wycliffe applied this last principle to civil power, which must also be measured according to the service it renders to its subjects; Wycliffe eventually lost support of many of the English nobles for this view

50. The Radicalization of Wycliffe’s Views • Wycliffe’s views became more radical as the result of the scandal of the Great Western Schism (1378) • The “true Church” is not the pope and his visible hierarchy, but rather the invisible body of those who are predestined to salvation • It is impossible to know for sure who is “predestined,” but there are indications or “fruits” of salvation in true believers • Many ecclesiastical leaders were in truth “reprobate”; eventually Wycliffe would declare that the pope was among those who were probably reprobate