Organic Chemistry

Organic Chemistry

Macromolecule Lab For lab this week, you and your partner will need to bring in: 1. Spice drops candy or DOTS candy 2. Toothpicks I have some colored pencils but if you have your own please bring them in.

MOLECULES OF LIFE • The 4 principle macromolecules are: • Carbohydrates • Proteins • Lipids • Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates • composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio. • 1 gram = 4 calories • carbohydrates are the main source of energy . • The monomer of carbohydrates is a monosaccharide. (lab question/answer) • Ex. Two common MONOSACCHARIDES (simple carbohydrates) are fructose and glucose. They are chemically written as C6H12O6. They are isomers of one another (same # and kind of molecules but different arrangement) (lab question/answer) ex. STAR….RATS

Complex carbohydrates are made by combining 2 or more monosaccharides to form larger molecules. • When two simple sugars are combined, one water molecule is removed during the bonding. • Because of the loss of water, the joining of 2 simple sugars is a type of dehydration synthesis (or condensation reaction) • The newly formed sugar is called a disaccharide (double sugar) Lab question/answer

Fructose and Glucose Can’t let you see the rest, it’s an answer to one of your lab answers

Ex. Three common DISACCHARIDES (double sugar molecules formed from the condensation of 2 monosaccharides) are maltose, lactose,andsucrose. Glucose + Glucose-----------> Maltose (malt sugar) Glucose + Galactose ---------> Lactose (human & cow milk) Glucose + Fructose -----------> Sucrose (table sugar) H2O H2O H2O

POLYSACCHARIDES • are the largest carbohydrates. • They are made by linking individual monosaccharides (monomers) together to form long chains. (lab question/answer) • May consist of thousands of monomers. Ex. Starch & Glycogen

Glycogen • Animals store glucose in the form of the (polysaccharide) glycogen. • Much of the glucose that comes from food is ultimately stored in your liver and muscles as glycogen and is ready to be used as quick energy. • Plants store glucose in the form of the (polysaccharide) starch. • Plants also make another large polysaccharide called cellulose. • Cellulose gives a plant its strength and rigidity.(ex. Celery) It makes up about 50% of wood.

Carbs Do Now! 1. Name the four principle macromolecules. 2. Give 2 ex. of a monosaccharide. 3. Give 2 ex. of a disaccharide. 4. In what form, do animals store extra carbohydrates? 5. In what 2 forms do plants store carbohydrates? 6. What kind of reaction takes place when you put together 2 monosaccharide? 7.One gram carbs = ____ calories 8. If 1 bottle of Mountain Dew has 31g of sugar per serving, and there is 2.5 servings in 1 bottle, how many total carbohydrate calories are in the bottle?_____

Vertebrates are unable to break the glucose links that make up the cellulose chain because vertebrates cannot produce cellulase, an enzyme. • Mammalian herbivores rely on the secretions from microorganisms living in the gut to break cellulose down. Humans, however, do not possess these microorganisms or grinding teeth so we cannot obtain energy from eating grass (although it is a necessary part of our diet as roughage). • Carbohydrates play a key role in storing and transporting energy in your body. • Energy that is going to be put into storage for future use is converted into an insoluble form (LIPIDS).

Hydrolysis • The process of breaking down a polysaccharide to again form monosaccharides is called HYDROLYSIS. • It is the reverse of dehydration synthesis. • A water molecule is used to split the bond between 2 simple sugars within the polysaccharide. (lab question/answer) • EX. Glycogen + H2O -------------> Glucose molecules Insulin (energy)

LIPIDS A.K.A. FATS

LIPIDS • Lipids • Lipids are different than other macromolecules in that they do NOTdissolve in water. • Fats, oils, and waxes. • Ex. beeswax, earwax, olive oil, vegetable oil.

Main functions of lipids are: • 1) energy storage (in animals, esp. mammals, it is stored in adipose tissue) • 2) structural support in cell membranes (phospholipids) • 3) specific reactants for metabolic reactions (used as chemical messengers) • Some lipids are formed from the combination of fatty acids and glycerol during dehydration synthesis. • Lipids, as a whole group, do not have repeating units (monomers) like proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids do but one kind of lipid has fatty acid monomers.

A fatty acid consists of long chains of: • hydrogen and carbon atoms (hydrocarbon chain), up to 24 carbon atoms long • and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end. • The carboxyl group of a fatty acid is polar and thus attracted to water. It is called hydrophilic or “water-loving”. • The hydrocarbon chain is non-polarand repels water. It is called hydrophobic or “water- fearing”. See Fig. 7-13 page 204 Macaw book (Several lab question/answers)

Lipids have twice the caloric value of carbohydrates but are more difficult to digest and respire. 1 gram of fat is equal to 9 calories If every carbon atom making up the fatty acid chain is connected to another carbon atom by a single bond. The carbon atoms concerned have all the hydrogen they can carry and are considered saturated with hydrogen. Lipids made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats and are solid at room temperature. (lab question/answer) Fig 2-15 pg 47 Saturated Fats

Unsaturated Fats • If a pair of carbon atoms is joined by a double bond, only one hydrogen atom is carried on the carbons concerned, and is therefore unsaturated. • If a fatty acid contains several double bonds, it is said to be polyunsaturated. • Lipids made from unsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids are called unsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats respectively. • These fats are liquid at room temperature and include cooking oils such as olive oil, corn oil, and peanut oil.(lab question/answer)

Trans Fats Trans fats (or trans fatty acids) are created in an industrial process that adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils to make them more solid. Another name for trans fats is “partially hydrogenated oils." Look for them on the ingredient list on food packages.

Why use trans fats? • Companies like using trans fats in their foods because they’re easy to use, inexpensive to produce and last a long time. • Trans fats give foods a desirable taste and texture. Many restaurants and fast-food outlets use trans fats to deep-fry foods because oils with trans fats can be used many times in commercial fryers.

Trans fats can be found in many foods – but especially in fried foods like French fries and doughnuts, and baked goods including pastries, pie crusts, biscuits, pizza dough, cookies, crackers, and stick margarines and shortenings.

LDL & HDL • LDL (Bad) CholesterolWhen too much LDL (bad) cholesterol circulates in the blood, it can slowly build up in the inner walls of the arteries that feed the heart and brain. Together with other substances, it can form plaque, a thick, hard deposit that can narrow the arteries and make them less flexible. This condition is known as atherosclerosis. If a clot forms and blocks a narrowed artery, heart attack or stroke can result. • HDL (good) CholesterolAbout one-fourth to one-third of blood cholesterol is carried by high-density lipoprotein (HDL). HDL cholesterol is known as “good” cholesterol, because high levels of HDL seem to protect against heart attack. Low levels of HDL (less than 40 mg/dL) also increase the risk of heart disease. Medical experts think that HDL tends to carry cholesterol away from the arteries and back to the liver, where it's passed from the body. Some experts believe that HDL removes excess cholesterol from arterial plaque, slowing its buildup.

Don’t forget the Triglycerides • Triglyceride is a form of fat made in the body. Elevated triglycerides can be due to overweight/obesity, physical inactivity, cigarette smoking, excess alcohol consumption and a diet very high in carbohydrates (60 percent of total calories or more). • People with high triglycerides often have a high total cholesterol level, including a high LDL (bad) level and a low HDL (good) level. Many people with heart disease and/or diabetes also have high triglyceride levels.

Cross section of a coronary artery showing the cholesterol build up in the vessel wall narrowing it.

McDonald’s Cheeseburger & Fries5 min. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4IGtDPG4UfI

DIETARY FATSOverview

Lipids • Fatty acids are generally found combined with glycerol in triglycerides (fat). Common dietary saturated triglycerides include shortening, lard, and animal fats. • Unsaturated triglycerides composed of unsaturated fatty acids are commonly found in plant seed and fruits. • Replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats in your diet may prevent heart disease. • Sterol lipids (steroid hormones) play an important part in building cells and carrying messages throughout the body. Ex. male testosterone. • The most common type of sterol lipid is cholesterol. It is very important for proper nerve cell function but too much can cause heart disease.

Pigments, such as chlorophyll, are also a type of lipid. • Phospholipids consist of two parts (one part that dissolves well in water and another part that does not dissolve well in water). Phospholipids make up a large part of every cell membrane. (Lab question/answer)

Cell membrane

Lipids Do Now! 1. Lipids are different than other macromolecules because they do not: 2. What are the 3 main functions of lipids? 3. A lipid has a carboxyl group at the top which is ___________and thus attracted to _________. It is called _______________ or “water-loving”. 4. The hydrocarbon chain is ________________ and _____________water. It is called _______________ or “water- fearing”. 5. Fats that are solid at room temp. are called: 6. A fat that has 1+ double bond is called: _________________ and is ______ at room temp. 7. What is another name for “trans fats”? 8. What is the difference between LDL and HDL cholesterol?

Complete the chart on Lipids (on test)

Proteins • Proteins are organic compounds composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. • 1 gram is equal to 4 calories • All proteins are made up of monomers called amino acids (a.a.) Lab question/answer • There are 20 different a.a. that human use. The a.a. link together various sequences to make different proteins. • Ex. proteins make up hair, muscle, spider's web, feathers, and fibers of a blood clot.

Amino acids • There are 4 groups of atoms that are bonded to a central carbon atom. Fig.2-17 pg. 48 1. The acid group, COOH, tends to give up a hydrogen atom. 2. The amino group, NH2, acts as a base because it combines with hydrogen atoms. 3. A single hydrogen atom 4. The R group adds variety to the amino acid. • Can consist of 1 hydrogen atom or a complex chain of atoms. • Each of the 20 amino acids has its own specific R group. http://www.johnkyrk.com/aminoacid.html • (lab question/answer)

Essential Amino Acids • Amino Acids that must be obtained from the diet are called "Essential Amino Acids“. • The essential amino acids are arginine (required for the young, but not for adults), histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. • These amino acids are required in the diet. • Plants, of course, must be able to make all the amino acids.

Non-Essential Amino Acids • Humans can produce 10 of the 20 amino acids. (Lab question/answer) • These are called "Non-Essential Amino Acids" since it is not essential from us to get them from our food. • The 10 amino acids that we can produce are alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine.

Two bonded amino acids (a.a.) are called dipeptides. • Long chains of 2 or more amino acids are called polypeptides. • All proteins are composed of one or morepolypeptides. • The most abundant protein in your body is collagen, a fibrous protein that forms the matrix of your skin, ligaments, bones, and tendons.

Enzymes • Special proteins called enzymes assist chemical reactions of metabolism. • An enzyme is a catalyst because it can increase the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy without being destroyed in the process.

Lock and Key Model • Enzymes control chemical reactions in order to maintain the body's inner balance. (homeostasis) • Enzymes reactions depend on a physical fit between an enzyme’s active site and its substrate just the way a specific key fits into a certain lock. • Once the enzyme’s active site and the correct substrate fit together a specific product(s) is released. Fig. 2-22 pg. 52

Temperature or pH can change the shape of the enzyme or the substrate. If this happens, the reaction cannot occur. • Inhibitors can block the active site of an enzyme thus regulating enzyme activity. EX. poisons Inhibitors act like gum in a key hole.

Test Yourself on Amino Acids • http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/aa/aa.html

Proteins Do Now! 1. Amino acids link together various sequences to make different ______________________. 2. One gram of protein is equal to _________calories. 3. The protein monomer is called an __________ __________. 4. There are _#_______ different amino acids that human use. 5. Three examples of proteins are: 6. The most abundant protein in your body is ____________________. 7. Amino acids that need to be obtained through your diet are called _____________ amino acids. 8. A_____________________ is a specific type of protein called an enzyme. It can increase the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy without being destroyed in the process. 9. ___________________________ or _________ can change the shape of the enzyme or the substrate. If this happens, the reaction cannot occur. 10. _______________________ can block the active site of an enzyme thus regulating enzyme activity. EX. poisons

Nucleic Acids • There are two basic kinds of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA • These complex molecules are made up of long chains of small repeating units (monomers) called nucleotides. • A nucleotide consists of 3 parts: • 1 phosphate • 1 sugar • 1 base • major function is to store hereditary information that can be later translated to form new proteins. See fig. 2-16 page 48 • The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating sugars (deoxyribose) and phosphates held together by a hydrogen bond. • (lab question/answer)

Four types of bases in DNA/RNA In RNA only

Chargaff’s Rule • Base Pairing Rule in DNA: • Adenine pairs with Thymine • Guanine pairs with Cytosine • Base Pairing Rule in RNA: • Adenine pairs with Uracil • Guanine pairs with Cytosine • A - U • G - C

DNA Shape: Double helix

Organic Chemistry