Cognition and Intelligence

1. Cognition and Intelligence Chapter 8

2. Problem Solving: In Search of Solutions Problem solving = active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

3. Types of Problems • Inducing structure = must discover the relations among the parts of the problem • Arrangement =must arrange the parts in a way that satisfies some criterion • Transformation = must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal

4. Barriers to Effective Problem Solving • Being distracted by irrelevant information • Succumbing to functional fixedness (only seeing an item’s most common use) • Relying on mental set (persisting with strategies that have worked in the past) • Placing unnecessary constraints on one’s solutions.

5. Approaches to Problem Solving • Trial & error = trying &discarding potential solutions to a problem until one works • Forming subgoals = break a problem into several parts • Searching for analogies between new problems and old problems • Changing the representation of problems

6. Approaches to Problem Solving • Incubation effect =when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem

7. Culture, Cognitive Style, & Problem Solving • Additional research suggests that there are cultural disparities in typical problem-solving strategies. • Eastern cultures =holistic cognitive style • Western cultures = analytic cognitive style

8. Decision Making: Choices and Chances

9. Decision Making: Choices and Chances • Decision making = evaluating alternatives &making choices among them. • Theory of bounded rationality = people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options & often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimal.

10. Making Choices about Preferences • modern societies suffer from choice overload, which leads to rumination, regret, and diminished well-being. • research = people prefer more choices up to a point, after which further increases in options lead to decreased satisfaction.

11. Making Choices about Preferences • Deliberation-without-awareness effect = intuitive, unconscious decisions may be more satisfying than those based on conscious deliberation, especially when choices are complex.

12. Heuristics in Judging Probabilities • Heuristic = a rule of thumb used in searching for solutions to a problem (mental shortcut). • availability heuristic = basing probability estimates on the ease with which relevant examples come to mind. • representativeness heuristic =basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the prototype of that event.

13. Common Flaws in Reasoning about Decisions • The conjunction fallacy =when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone.

14. Common Flaws in Reasoning about Decisions • The gambler’s fallacy = the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently. • People tend to inflate estimates of improbable events that garner heavy coverage in the media, because of the availability heuristic. • Research shows that people overestimate the impact of losses.

15. Evolutionary Analyses of Fast & Frugal Heuristics • Evolutionary psychologists maintain that human decision making only seems irrational because cognitive psychologists have been asking the wrong questions &formulating problems in the wrong ways.

16. Evolutionary Analyses of Fast & Frugal Heuristics • Fast & frugal heuristics are extremely simple decision strategies that are surprisingly adaptive in the real world. • Dual-process theories propose that people depend on two different modes of thinking in making decisions: fast & frugal heuristics and effortful, controlled deliberation.

17. Measuring Intelligence mental age = the mental ability typical of a child of that chronological (actual) age intelligence quotient (IQ) =child’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

18. A Brief History • Modern intelligence testing began with Alfred Binet, a French psychologist who published the first useful intelligence test in 1905. • Binet’sscale measured a child’s mental age.

19. A Brief History • Lewis Terman revised the original Binet scale to produce the Stanford-Binet in 1916. • It introduced the intelligence quotient and became the standard of comparison for subsequent intelligence tests.

20. A Brief History • David Wechsler devised an improved measure of intelligence for adults. • He also introduced a new scoring system based on the normal distribution, • a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population.

22. What do Modern IQ Scores Mean? • Modern scoring system = deviation IQ scores indicate where people fall in the normal distribution of intelligence for their age group. • On most tests, the mean is set at 100 and the standard deviation is set at 20.

23. Do Intelligence Tests have Adequate Reliability? • IQ tests are exceptionally reliable, with reliability coefficients typically ranging into the .90s. • Reasonably valid measures of academic intelligence in that they predict school performance fairly well • Source: MicroSoft ClipArt

24. Heredity &Environment as Determinants of Intelligence

25. Evidence for Hereditary Influence • Twin studies = identical twins, even when raised apart, are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins, suggesting that intelligence is inherited. • Adoption studies reveal that people resemble their parents in intelligence even when not raised by them.

26. Evidence for Environmental Influence • Studies show that adopted children resemble their parents and adoptive siblings in intelligence. • The effects of environmental deprivation &enrichment also indicate that IQ is shaped by experience.

27. Evidence for Environmental Influence • Generational changes in IQ (the Flynn effect) can only be due to environmental factors. • The concept of reaction range posits that heredity places limits on one’s intellectual potential while the environment determines where one falls within these limits.

28. Reaction Range

29. The Interaction of Heredity & Environment • Even if the heritability of IQ is great, group differences in average intelligence could be entirely environmental in origin. • ethnicity co-varies with social class, so socioeconomic disadvantage may contribute to low IQ scores among minority students.

30. New Directions in the Study of Intelligence

31. Exploring Biological Correlates of Intelligence • Recent research = a moderate positive correlation between IQ &overall brain volume estimated from MRI scans.

32. Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behavior • Sternberg’s cognitive perspective = emphasizes need to understand how people use their intelligence. • 3 facets of successful intelligence • Analytical = involves abstract reasoning, evaluation, and judgment • Creative = ability to generate new ideas & to be inventive in dealing with novel problems

33. Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behavior • Practical intelligence = ability to deal effectively with kinds of problems that people encounter in everyday life, such as on the job or at home.

34. Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behavior • Tacit knowledge—what one needs to know in a particular environment in order to work efficiently that is not explicitly taught and that often is not even verbalized.

35. Howard Gardner and the Theory of Multiple Intelligence

36. Gardner’s Eight Intelligences

37. Measuring & Understanding Creativity • Creativity = generation of original, novel, &useful ideas. • Creativity does not usually involve sudden insight. • Divergent thinking contributes to creativity but does not represent its essence.