Module 15 : Motivation

1. Module 15 : Motivation Natalia Diaz, Adriana Moran, Homero Perez, Jordan Prats, Victoria Casal, Amanda Gonzalez, Annette, Richard

2. Motivation – various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way at a particular time • Instincts – according to Mc Dougall, innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior ; now used as a synonym for fixed action pattern • Fixed Action Pattern – an innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way I the presence of a specific environmental condition previously called instinct. • Reward/Pleasure Center Of The Brain – The part of the brain includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental are and involves several neurotransmitters, especially dopamine combined with other brain areas it forms a neural circuit that produces rewarding and pleasurable feelings. • Incentives – environmental factors such as external stimuli, reinforces or rewards that motivate our behaviors. These can be either thoughts or objects.

3. Intrinstic v. Extrinctic Motivation • Instinstic - engaging in certain activities or behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations • Extrinctic - engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives or external rewards

4. Biological v. Social Needs • Biological - physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being • Social - needs that are acquired through learning and experience MaslowsHierachy – need is an ascending order or hierarchy in which biological needs are placed at the top. According to maslowshierachy we satisfy our biological needs before we satisfy our social needs.

5. Maslows hierarchy of needs • Level 5 Self Actualization – fulfillment of ones unique potential. According to Maslow the highest need is self actualization and cautioned that very few individuals reach this level of self actualization because it is sp difficult and challenging. • Level 4 Esteem Needs – achievement competency, gaining approval and recognition during early and middle adulthood people are especially concerned with achieving their goals and establishing their career. • Level 3 Love and Belongings needs – affiliation with others and acceptance by others adolescents and young adults who are beginning to form serious relationships ,would be especially interested in fulfilling their needs for love and belonging. • Level 2 Safety Needs – protection from harm, people who live in high-crime or dangerous areas of the city would be very concerned about satisfying their safety needs. • Level 1 Physiological Needs – food, water, sex and sleep. People who are homeless or jobless would be especially concerned with satisfying their physiological needs above all other needs.

6. Optimal Weight v. Ideal Weight • Optimal Weight - • a weight that is believed to be maximally healthful for a person, based chiefly on height but modified by factors such as gender, age, build, and degree of muscular development. • Ideal Weight – • ideal weight results from an almost perfect balance between how much food an organism eats and how much it needs to meet its body’s energy needs • Overweight - means that a person is 20% over the ideal body weight • Obesity - means that a person is 30% or more above the ideal body weight

7. Hunger Factors There are three hunger factors which are : -Biological hunger factors • Are physiological changes in blood chemistry and signals from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain that triggers us to eat or stop eating. -Psychosocial hunger factors • Learned associations between food and other stimuli, like snacking while watching television; sociocultural influences like being pressured to be thin; and various personality problems like depression, very low self esteem and disliking your own body image. -Genetic hunger factors • come from inherited instructions found in our genes snd determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body’s fuel, which push us toward being normal, overweight, or underweight

8. Psychological Hunger Factors • Learned Associations - The best example of how learned associations influence eating are when we eat not because we are hungry, but because its our friends eating or because we cant resist large portions. • Social-Cultural Influence - This affects us more depending on the countries habits. For example, in America the ideal woman is showed as slim. So, many women are insecure about their body weight and feel overweight. • Personality Traits - This affects us depending on our personality and habits. Like when we are stressed or depressed and then decide to eat a lot. Also, going on food binges and starving our self.

9. Hunger • On the basis of the twin studies, researchers concluded that inherited factors contribute 70-80% to the maintenance of a particular body size and weight, while environmental factors contribute 20-30%. • We inherit a different number of fat cells, whose number is primarily determined by heredity. They don’t normally multiply except when people become obese. • We inherit different rates of metabolisms. The rate of it refers to how efficiently our bodies break down food into energy and how quickly our bodies burn off that fuel. • We inherit a set point to maintain a certain amount of body fat.

10. Overcoming Educational Disadvantages • In Studies it has been shown that parents who are professionals talk more to their children than parents on welfare. Also, parents that are professionals give more words of encouragement than parents on welfare who rather give words of discouragement. • It has also been shown that welfare kids perform less well than their middle-class counterparts. Poor children can still reach the same level or excel their counterparts, but it takes much more effort, because of their parents discouragement.   • The schools that best educate these students are much longer, the first class starts at 8am to 4pm, and summer is shortened to one month • Second there are clearly stated goals for the students to complete • Finally, they also teach students character and behavior, and offer assistance at request. • Programs like KIPP are focusing on teaching students not only academics but also many more things. Results have been shown to be very positive with students getting better grades and higher IQs.

11. Peripheral cues v. Central cues • Peripheral cues • Results from activity in different brain areas, which in turn results in increasing or decreasing appetite • Central cues • result from activity in different brain areas, which in turn result in increasing or decreasing appetite

12. Sex Factors • Genetic sex factors • include inherited instructions for the development of sexual organs, the secretion of sex hormones, and the wiring of the neural circuits that control sexual reflexes • Biological sex factors • include the action of sex hormones, which are involved in secondary sexual characteristics (facial hair, breasts), sexual development of ova and sperm • Psychological sex factors • role in developing a sexual or gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientation • psychological factors can result in difficulties in the performance or enjoyment of sexual activities

13. Male v. Female hormones

14. Gender identity • An individual’s subjective experience and feelings of being either a male or female • Gender identity disorder • commonly referred to as transsexualism • a person who has a strong and persistent desire to be the other sex, is uncomfortable about being one’s assigned sex, and may wish to live as a member of the other sex • Gender roles • refer to the traditional or stereotypic behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that society designates as masculine or feminine

15. double standard for sexual behavior • refers to a set of beliefs, values, and expectations that subtly encourage sexual activity in men but discourages the same behavior in women Paraphilias • sexual deviations, characterized by repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies involving nonhuman objects, such as sexual attraction to particular articles of clothing (shoes, underclothes) Sexual dysfunction • problems of sexual arousal or orgasm that interfere with adequate functioning during sexual intercourse

16. Pyschologial v. Organic Factors • Organic factors • medical conditions or drug or medication problems that lead to sexual difficulties • Psychological factors • performance anxiety, sexual trauma, guilt, or failure to communicate

17. Achievement Needs • Need for achievement • refers to the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in pursuing those goals in the face of obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks • High need for achievement • shown by those who persist longer at tasks; perform better on tasks, activities, or exams; set challenging but realistic goals; compete with others to win; and are attracted to careers that require initiative

18. Module 16 : Emotion

19. An emotion defined in terms of four components. First, your interpret or appraise some stimulus (event, object, or thought) in terms of your well-being. Second, you experience a subjective feeling, such as fear or happiness. Third, you have physiological responses, such as change in heart rate or breathing. Fourth, you may show observable behaviors, such as smiling or crying.

20. PERIPHERAL THEORIES:  • The peripheral theories of emotions emphasize how physiological changes in the body give rise to emotional feelings. The cognitive appraisal theory of emotions emphasize how interpretations or appraisal in situation result in emotional feeling •  The affective neuroscience approach studies the underlying neural bases of mood and emotion by focusing on the brain's neural circuits that evaluate stimuli and produce or contribute to experiencing and expressing different emotional states. • The James-Lange theory says that our brains interpret specific physiological changes as feeling or emotions and that there is a different physiological pattern underlying each emotion. •  The facial feedback theory says that the sensations or feedback from the movement of your facial muscles and skin are interpreted by your brain as different emotions.

21. COGNITIVE APPRAISAL THEORY: • The cognitive appraisal theory says that your interpretation or appraisal or thought or memory of a situation, object, or event contribute to, or result in, your experiencing different emotional states. •  Your stimulus could be an event, object, or thought. You appraise or think of what you can do. Appraising or thinking about what you can do brings feelings of happiness and joy. You also have physiological responses and observable behaviors.

22. AFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH: UNIVERSAL FACIAL EXPRESSION: • The amygdala is located in the tip of the brain's temporal lobe and receives input from all the senses. Using all the sensory input, the amygdala monitors and evaluates whether stimuli have positive (happy) or negative (fearful) emotional significance for our well-being and survival. It is also involved in storing memories that have emotional content. • Universal emotional expressions are a number of specific inherited facial patterns or expressions that signal specific feelings or emotional states, such as a smile signaling happy state. RECOGNITION of FACIAL EXPRESSIONS (WESTERN): happiness 96%, surprise 88%, anger 81%, sadness 80%. (PRIMITIVE): happiness 92%, surprised 36%, anger 46%, sadness 52%.

23. FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS: • Facial expressions that accompany emotions may send social signals about how we feel as well as provide social signals about what we are going to do.                                  • The evolutionary theory of emotions say that one function of emotions is to help us evaluate objects, people, and situations in terms of how good or bad they are for our well-being and survival.                                    • The Yerkes-Dodson law says that performance on a task is an interaction between the level of physiological arousal and the difficulty of the task. For difficult task, low arousal result in better performance; for most task, moderate arousal helps performance; and for easy task, high arousal may facilitate performance.

24. HAPPINESS: • Happiness, usually indicate by smiling and laughing, can result from momentary pleasures, such as funny commercial; short-term joys, such as a great date; and long-term satisfaction, such as an enjoyable relationship. • The reward/pleasure center includes several areas, such as the nucleus accunbens and ventral tegmental area, and several neurotransmitters, especially dopamine. These and other brain areas make up a neural circuit that produces rewarding and pleasurable feelings, such as happiness. •  The adaption level theory says that we quickly become accustomed to receiving some good fortune (money, job, car, degree); we take the goof fortune for granted within a short period of time; as a result, the initial impact of our good fortune fades and contributes less to our long-term level of happiness.

25. cultural diversity: emotions across cultures • Showing emotions: • Display rules: are specific cultural rules that regulate how, when and where a person expresses emotions and how much emotional expression is appropriate. • Greetings: in some European cultures, the display rule for greeting someone is for both men and women, to kiss each other on the cheeks or lips. For Americans the display greeting is a handshake or a friendly hug. • Laughing and crying: American display rules generally encourage public displays of emotion, such as open- mouth laughing. Japanese display rules for laughing by covering ones open mouth because showing much emotion in public is discouraged. An Eskimo mother may let her baby cry to send the message that her culture disapproves of the display of negative emotions. • Smiling and interpreting: American adolescent girls and women smile more than boys and men do, and women are better than men at interpreting nonverbal cues. • Potential problems: because of different display rules for expressing emotions, people from one culture may run into problems when traveling or conducting business in another culture. For example westerners often make direct eye contact and may show emotions during business meetings, while Asians avoid direct eye contact and outward expressions of emotions. • Gestures: similar to how emotional display rules differ, gestures may also have different emotional meanings in different cultures. Depending on your culture, you also rate different emotions as being more or less intense. Japanese for example rated disgust as the most intense of five emotions (surprise, anger, happiness, disgust and sadness) and Americans rated happiness as the most intense of five emotions

26. Research focus: Emotional intelligence • Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions accurately, to take feelings into account when reasoning, to understand emotions, and to regulate or manage emotions in oneself and others. • Unlike the traditional idea of intelligence involving performance or cognitive tests, emotional intelligence involves how well people perceive, express, and regulates emotions in themselves and others. • According to supporters of emotional intelligence, the better our understanding of how emotions work, the more likely we are to find a compromise between our often strong emotional feelings and our equally strong rational thoughts. • Critics of emotional intelligence point out that in business settings and schools where programs try to reach or improve emotional intelligence; the results have been more hype than substance. Although there is still considerable debate about the usefulness of emotional intelligence, no one denies that emotions can exert powerful influences on many of our behaviors.

27. How we perceive emotional expressions • Scientists have known that we are able to detect emotions, such as fear, anger, and happiness, in people’s faces almost instantaneously. • Human brains are innately prepared to connect with others in an intimate way, and this enables us to share the emotions of others and be sensitive to their feelings. • We are able to share emotions felt by others because of mirror neurons, which track the emotions of the person we are with and replicate the same emotions in us by activating our brains in the same way the others person’s brain is activated.

28. application: lie detection • The lie detector test is based on the four components o an emotion. The first component of an emotion is interpreting or appraising a stimulus, the second component of an emotion is a subjective feeling, the third component of an emotion is the occurrence of various psychological responses and the fourth component of an emotion is the occurrence of some overt behavior, such as a facial expression. • Lie detector tests are based on the theory that, if a person tells a lie, he or she will fell some emotion, such as guilt or fear. Feeling guilty or fearful will be accompanied by involuntary physiological responses, which are difficult to suppress or control and can be measured with machine called a polygraph. • The galvanic skin response refers to the changes in sweating of the fingers or palms that accompany emotional experiences and are independent of perspiration under normal temperatures. • The control question technique refers to a lie detection procedure in which the examiner asks two kinds of questions: neutral questions that elicit little emotional response, and critical questions that are designed to elicit large emotional responses. The person answers yes or no to the questions and, if guilty, is expected to show a greater emotional response to the critical questions than to the neutral questions.