THE FOR-TO -INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION

1. THE FOR-TO-INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION EXPRESSED BY A NOUN IN COMMON CASE OR A PERSONAL PRONOUN IN THE OBJECTIVE CASE AND AN INFINITIVE WITH THE PARTICLE TO. IT IS INTRODUCED BY THE PREPOSITION FOR. SERVES AS 1) SUBJECT e.g. It was easy for us to reach. For me to miss that concert was a crime. 2) PREDICATIVE e.g. That is not for me to say. What will come out of it remains for everyone to see. 3) OBJECT e.g. Everyone was impatient for the performance to begin. 4) ATTRIBUTE e.g. There was nothing for me to say. She gave orders for all of us to stop panicking. 5) ADVERBIAL MODIFIER e.g. The offer was too good for me to waste it.

2. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE CONSISTS OF TWO OR MORE CLAUSES OF EQUAL RANK. CLAUSES ARE CALLED COORDINATE, AS THEY ARE JOINED BY COORDINATION. TYPES OF LINK BETWEEN THE CLAUSES: • SYNDETICALLY (CONJUNCIONS AND, BUT, OR, NOR, FOR, ETC. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS MOREOVER, BESIDES, HOWEVER, YET, ETC) • ASYNDETICALLY (COMMA, SEMICOLON, COLON, DASH) IN SPEECH THEY ARE SEPARATED BY PAUSES. THE MAIN SEMANTIC FEATURE IS THAT IT FOLLOWS THE FLOW OF THOUGHT. • THE OPENING CLAUSE PLAYS THE LEADING ROLE AND EACH SUCCESSIVE CLAUSE IS RELATED/JOINED TO THE PREVIOUS ONE. • THE CLAUSES ARE SEQUENTIALLY FIXED e.g. I was late for the class; moreover, the class was absolutely useless. 3) COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BELONG TO DIFFERENT COMMUNICATIVE TYPES e.g. Your friend sounds nice, but when are we finally going to see him?

3. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE Copulative connection (coordinates w/similar information) And, nor, neither…nor, not only…but also, as well as, moreover, besides e.g. She went home and read that e-mail. They knew the lecturer and that disappointed them. He packed his things, then he unpacked them. Adversative connection (opposition, contrast, contradiction) But, while, whereas, however, nevertheless, yet, still, only e.g. The weather was nasty, but the spirits were high. Sam is an athlete, while his wife is a couch potato. There was food, only no one could find it.

4. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE Disjunctive coordination (choice between alternatives) Or, either…or, else (or else), otherwise e.g. Either stay with me, or I will curse you! Don’t be late, otherwise they won’t let you in. Do as I say, or else I’ll shoot. Causative-consecutive coordination (one has reason, the other – consequence) For e.g. Jane must have left her phone at home, for she doesn’t answer it. So, so that, therefore, hence, thus, then e.g. The cost was low, so everyone liked it. The show was a bomb, therefore many people felt disappointed.

5. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE CONSISTS OF A MAIN (PRINCIPAL, INDIPENDENT) CLAUSE AND A SUBORDINATE (DEPENDENT) CLAUSE(S) TYPES OF CONNECTION BETWEEN THE CLAUSES: • SYNDETICALLY (CONJUNCIONS THAT, BECAUSE, THOUGH, IN ORDER TO, ETC., CONJUNCTIVE WORDS WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, ETC., RELATIVE WORDS WHOM, WHERE, WHICH, ETC.) e.g. I know what he said. I know that he said something. • ASYNDETICALLY (COMMA, SEMICOLON, DASH) POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS: • SUCCESSIVE SUBORDINATION: e.g. He understands that there is a problem which we cannot solve. • PARALLEL SUBORDINATION e.g. I know that you were there and you asked him that question. • SUBORDIANTE CLAUSES WITH DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS e.g. All she likes is when someone looks at the paintings which she drew when she was five.

6. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE THE ROLE OF A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE IS TO COMPLETE THE MAIN CLAUSE: e.g. I believe that she is married. The subordinate clause may be placed before, after, or in the middle of the main clause. Punctuation depends on closeness of connection – if closely connected, the clause is joined w/out any punctuation mark: e.g. This is the dress I told you about. Semantically the main clause dominates the subordinate clause(s), as it contains the main information. However, there are cases when the main clause is less important, maintaining only the immediate communicative connection w/the listener: e.g. I asked them if they were there alone.

7. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES FUNCTION AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A SUBJECT CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY THAT, IF WHETHER, BECAUSE, THE WAY; WHO, WHOEVER, WHAT, ETC.; WHENEVER, HOW, WHY, WHERE, ETC. TWO TYPES: • SUBJECT CLAUSE PRECEDES THE PREDICATE OF THE MAIN CLAUSE e.g. How well I will pass the test depends solely on me. 2) WHEN A SUBJECT CLAUSE IS IN FINAL POSITION AND THE SENTENCE CONTAINS FORMAL SUBJECT “IT” e.g. It seems unfair that some should take more exams than the others.

8. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A PREDICATIVE CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY THAT, WHETHER, BECAUSE, THE WAY, AS, AS IF, LEST; WHO, WHOEVER, WHAT, ETC.; WHENEVER, HOW, WHY, WHERE, ETC. TYPES: • THE PC FOLLOWS THE MAIN CLAUSE IN WHICH THE SUBJECT IS A NOTIONAL WORD W/A VERY GENERAL MEANING (THING, QUESTION, PROBLEM, NEWS, RULE, TROUBLE) e.g. The thing is that he doesn’t speak the language. 2) THE PC MAY FOLLOW THE MAIN CLAUSE IN WHICH THE SUBJECT IS EXPRESSED BY THE IMPERSIONAL PRONOUN “IT” e.g. It sounded as if he really knew the subject. NB! DO NOT CONFUSE WITH SC WHERE THE PREDICATE IN THEMAIN CLAUSE IS COMPLETE, WHEREAS IN PC IT CONSISTS ONLY OF A LINK-VERB: c.f. It seems that there’s no food. It seems evident that that there’s no food

9. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN OBJECT CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY THAT, IF, WHETHER, LEST; WHO, WHOEVER, WHAT, ETC.; WHENEVER, HOW, WHY, WHERE, ETC. REFERS TO ANY VERBAL FORM (FINITE & NON-FINITE) OR ADJECTIVES e.g. I told her to do whatever she wanted to. He was anxious lest someone should break that precious Chinese vase. TYPES: • DIRECTLY FOLLOWS THE WORD IT REFERS TO: e.g. He said that the food was delicious. 2) OBJECT CLAUSE IS IN FINAL POSITION AND THE SENTENCE CONTAINS FORMAL SUBJECT “IT” (after FEEL, TAKE, CONSIDER, FIND, LIKE, etc.) e.g.I like it when you smile. I find it appalling. 3) AN OC MAY BE JOINED TO THE MC BY THE PREPOSITIONS (AFTER, ABOUT, BEFORE, NEAR, etc.) e.g. I want you to be responsible for what you do.

10. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY CONJUNCTIONS WITH A DISTINCT MEANING. SOME TYPES MAY BE INTRODUCED BY AT LEAST A DOZEN DIFFERENT CONJUNCTIONS (E.G. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME). ON THE OTHER HAND, ONE AND THE SAME CONJUNCTION MAY BE USED TO INTRODUCE MORE THAN ONE KIND OF CLAUSE (AS, SINCE, THAT, WHEN). IT MAY QUALIFY THE WHOLE MAIN CLAUSE, THE PREDICATE, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. THEREFORE, IT POSITION VARIES: INITIAL, MEDIAL, FINAL. e.g. When you come home check your mailbox. One day, because it was convenient, he approached her. Shall we go somewhere where it’s hot?

11. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE FUNCTIONS AS A MODIFIER TO A WORD OF NOMINAL CHARACTER. CALLED THE ANTECEDENT INTRODUCED BY RELATIVE PRONOUNS WHO, WHOSE, WHAT, WHICH, THAT; WHERE, WHEN, ETC. TYPES: • DIFINING (CLOSELY CONNECTED W/THE ANTECEDENT AND CANNOT BE REMOVED FROM THE SENTENCE) e.g. This is the house which my Dad built. • NON-DEFINING (CONTAINS ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE ANTECEDENT AND CAN BE LEFT OUT ) e.g. My sister Lucy, who is a kindergarten teacher, is a terrific cook. MAY ALSO BE JOINED ASYNDETICALLY (IN WHICH CASE - DEFINING)

12. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE/ COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause: e.g. After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he was really surprised. Usually there’s no difference between the names, however, some grammars differentiate between the two, using the name depending on which sentence comes first: e.g. Because I was late, the teacher didn’t let me in and I missed the class. (complex-compound) The teacher didn’t let me in and I missed the class, which I had been preparing for all night. (compound-complex)

13. INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH THE GRAMMARTICAL FORM IN WHICH THE SPEAKERS’S WORDS ARE REPORTED IS A SUBORDINATE OBJECT CLAUSE (statements and questions) OR AN INFINITIVE OBJECT (orders and requests). THE WORD ORDER IN THESE CLAUSES IS ALWAYS DIRECT e.g. He wondered what kind of that was. I asked when she had arrived. THE TENSE OF THE OBJECT CLAUSE’S PREDICATE IS PREDETERMINED BY THE RULE OF SEQUENCE OF TENSES WITH A FEW EXEPTIONS ( STATEMENTS THAT ARE ALWAYS TRUE, IMMEDIATE RESPONSES) e.g. I asked what had happened. BUT: She said she is twenty-three. IN ADDITION TO THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES, THERE IS ALSO CHANGE IN THE USE OF CERTAINS ADVERBS AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS e.g. She said, “Kill him now” She ordered to kill him then.