Developmental Milestones in Leisure and Recreation

1. chapter12 Leisure and Recreation Across the Life Span Laura L. Payne and Lynn A. Barnett

2. Three Major Categories of Development • Physical • Cognitive • Socioemotional

3. Seven Life Stages • Infancy (birth to 2 years) • Early childhood (3 to 6 years) • Middle and late childhood (7 to 12 years) • Adolescence (13 to 19 years) • Early adulthood (20 to 39 years) • Middle adulthood (40 to 59 years) • Late adulthood (60 years and older)

4. Infancy: From Baby to Toddler • Physical • Gross motor skills: sitting, rolling, and crawling • Fine motor skills: eye–hand coordination • CognitiveRecognition, pretending, memory of several days • SocioemotionalUnique personalities, confidence, and exploration • Considerations for program designPlay through sensorimotor: vivid colors, sounds, soft balls and blocks and teething toys, graduated nesting toys, wooden spoons, dolls, and hand puppets

5. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • Offer a variety of programs and services for infants and toddlers. • Pair mother or father with the infant. • Programs featuring music and movement are naturally enjoyed and facilitate motor skill, language, and sensory development.

6. Early Childhood: Preschool Years • PhysicalBodies lengthen, body fat decreases, movements are faster. • CognitiveAttention to tasks, imaginative thinking, and pretend play, and consideration of actions and feelings of others increases. • Socioemotional • Increasing perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills • Surplus energy, new initiatives, peer relationships, increasing amount of time and energy; value of play with peers • Considerations for program design • Opportunities for running, kicking, throwing, and catching large soft balls • Memory developing rapidly; simple rules enjoyed

7. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • Younger-kids camp programs give parents a break for a couple of hours. • Encourage children to take the initiative to test new skills and abilities and to further refine skills to carry over to the next life stage: • Gross motor skills • Memory • Attention • Symbolic play

8. Middle and Late Childhood:Elementary School Years • PhysicalGrowth slows, muscle mass gradually increases, motor development is more coordinated • CognitiveThought processes: considering evidence, planning ahead, thinking logically, and formulating alternative hypotheses • SocioemotionalSpecial norms, vocabulary, rituals, and rules of behavior flourish without the approval, or sometimes even the knowledge, of adults. (continued)

9. Middle and Late Childhood:Elementary School Years (continued) Seven functions of children’s friendship: • Companionship • Stimulation, excitement, and amusement • Physical support • Ego support • Feedback to help maintain an impression of self • Social comparison of whether the child is “okay” • Intimacy and affection (where sharing and self-disclosure take place) (continued)

10. Middle and Late Childhood:Elementary School Years (continued) Considerations for program design: • Special interest clubs are appealing and offer opportunities to affiliate with a social group and be active and creative. • When faced with challenges, this age group tends to persevere rather than become frustrated and give up easily. Present integrated cognitive and physical skills.

11. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • Learning new skills. • Mastery of rules and competition. • Competition versus cooperation. A variety of skills are necessary and the nontraditional nature of the activities are important so that all participants can feel a sense of contribution and accomplishment to the larger group.

12. Adolescence: Teenage Years • Physical • Sudden, uneven, and unpredictable jump in the growth of almost every part of the body; height spurt and weight increase, preoccupation with body • Social comparisons and formation of sexual identity • Cognitive • Improvements in processing and memory, think of possibilities, not just reality or practicalities; speculate and hypothesize • Teenagers in a position to make personal decisions and independent choices that could have far-reaching consequences for their future (friends, career, sex, drugs?) (continued)

13. Adolescence: Teenage Years (continued) • Socioemotional • Identity: finding out who one is, where one is headed in life • Important to actively experiment with numerous roles and identities; a healthy identity is flexible, adaptive, and open to changes in society, in relationships, and in careers • Considerations for program design • Consistent staff to whom they can relate, look up to, and from whom they will model prosocial behaviors . . . someone they want to be seen with • Advisory board: cross section of teens viewed as leaders and associated with different social groups • Environment: feel free from parental control or influence; trying to differentiate themselves from parents and family

14. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • Take an empowerment approach to programming. • Staff the facility with young adults (e.g., college students) that teens look up to. Teens should not feel constrained or threatened in their presence. • Teens are becoming more autonomous and want more control over their activities and environments. • Provide flexible and appealing environments and activities that facilitate this exploration in an active and healthy manner.

15. Early Adulthood: 20s and 30s • Physical • Reach their peak physical performance at 19 to 26. • After age 30, muscle tone and strength decline, body fat increases, eyes lose elasticity. • Cognitive • Use reflective judgment when solving problems. Think deeply about many aspects of politics, their career and work, relationships, and life. • More skeptical, often are not willing to accept an answer as final; face constraints imposed by reality; the idealism they held as adolescents declines. (continued)

16. Early Adulthood: 20s and 30s (continued) • Socioemotional • Development of friendships and romantic relationships is an intricate balance of intimacy and commitment on the one hand and independence and freedom on the other. • Inability to develop meaningful relationships with others results in feelings of isolation and can harm a person’s personality. • People often seek to establish their emerging career in a particular field; they may work hard to move up the career ladder and improve their financial standing. (continued)

17. Early Adulthood: 20s and 30s (continued) • Considerations for program design • Travel and cultural activities tend to be affordable. • Team sports tend to be social; sports provide a physical outlet for diffusing work-related stress and opportunities to develop and refine physical skills. • This age group has disposable income to invest in specialized recreation equipment. • Networking and social events are important. • This age group volunteers with charitable organizations.

18. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • A sport and social club is a commercial recreation organization that targets members 21 to 35. It offers intramural sports (soccer, football, softball, volleyball, basketball, kickball), games ( billiards, cards, darts), adventure recreation and exercise classes (yoga, kayaking, rock climbing, dancing), social events and parties, trips, and volunteerism opportunities, such as charity events. • Young adults vary widely in their recreation needs and motivations. Offer courses and leagues catering to different levels of skill and competition. (continued)

19. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors (continued) • Message boards on Web sites allow members to chat, exchange information, announce social gatherings, and find players for intramural sports teams. • This age group is drawn to active pursuits that challenge them physically, creatively, and intellectually. • Social networking is important; therefore, events such as parties, charity events, sport leagues, and festivals are popular among young adults.

20. Middle Adulthood: 40s and 50s • PhysicalRate of aging varies between people. Skin wrinkles. Hair thins. Joints stiffen. Bone loss is progressive. People lose height, and many gain weight. Hearing is no longer as acute. Eye acuity declines. • Cognitive4 of 6 areas of mental functioning reach their highest level at this age: • Vocabulary (understanding ideas expressed in words) • Verbal memory (encoding and recalling meaningful words) • Inductive reasoning (recognizing and understanding patterns and relationships in a problem) • Spatial orientation (visualizing and mentally rotating stimuli in 2- and 3-dimensional space) (continued)

21. Middle Adulthood: 40s and 50s (continued) • Socioemotional • Guide next generation by parenting, teaching, leading, and doing things that benefit the community. • Question how time should be spent and reassess priorities. Leisure: the first time that they have the opportunity to diversify their interests. • Considerations for program designThis age group wrestles with generativity and stagnation: • Self-expression, self-exploration, and activities replace roles lost from the “empty nest” experience or the death of parents. • Physical changes with age become more visible; it’s important to emphasize vitality during this stage of life.

22. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • Interests may change from more strenuous physical forms of exercise (aerobics, running), to more expressive and social forms of physical activity (yoga, Pilates, dance, water aerobics, and hiking and walking). • Activities often include a social component and foster the development of social support networks and friendships.

23. Late Adulthood: Senior Years • Physical • Every part of the body slows: speed of walking and thinking, reaction time and reading time, and speech and heart rate. • Bodily system becomes less efficient: The heart pumps less blood, arteries harden, digestive organs are less efficient, lungs lose capacity, sleeping is less sound, and sexual responses slow. • People get shorter as they age; this is caused by bone loss in the vertebrae. Weight drops. • Senses are less sharp. (continued)

24. Late Adulthood: Senior Years(continued) • Cognitive • Mechanics: Speed and accuracy, sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, and discrimination all decline with age. • Pragmatics: Improvement into old age in reading and writing skills and language comprehension is possible for many people. • Socioemotional • This age group reflects on the past and reviews life experiences and integration within the broader community, including culture, ethnicity, gender, and interpersonal relationships with family and friends. • Self-esteem often drops significantly when people reach their 70s and 80s. This is related to personal control. Social support is important. (continued)

25. Late Adulthood: Senior Years(continued) • Considerations for program design • Involvement: Use advisory board or needs assessment surveys to develop program ideas. • Diversity of population: Major differences in health and functioning have been identified between people in the 65–74, 75–84, and 85 and older age groups and among individuals within each of these groups. • Provide choice and variety. • Provide social connectedness.

26. Examples From Recreationand Leisure Service Sectors • Chronic disease training: Instructors are trained in common chronic diseases associated with later life and their symptoms and strategies for managing symptoms. • Peer instructors: It is more motivating to follow a peer leader than a young person clad in a tight-fitting spandex outfit. • Health and wellness seminars: A variety of topics such as financial management, reflexology, nutrition, and homeopathy provide resources that serve the whole person.

27. Summary • Leisure affords people of all ages unique opportunities for enjoyment, fun, pleasure, affiliation, movement, skill, and personal development. • Recreation professionals should gain insight into the process of applying the knowledge of these age-related characteristics to design, programming, and implementation of recreational opportunities for people across the life span.