Transformations in Europe Chapter 16

1. Transformations in EuropeChapter 16

2. Culture and Ideas: Religious Reformation • 1500 - the Catholic Church began building new churches • Pope Leo X – raised money for these churches by approving sales of indulgences • Martin Luther challenged the Pope on the issue of indulgences and other practices that he considered corrupt or not Christian; began the Protestant Reformation, arguing that salvation could be by faith alone, that Christian belief could be based only on the Bible and on Christian tradition. (Bulliet 406). • Martin Luther and Pope Leo began to have a theological dispute, which quickly escalated into a contest between two strong minded men. Largely ignoring Luther’s theological objections, Pope Leo regarded his letters as a challenge to papal power and moved to silence the German monk. (Bulliet 406) • During the debate in 1519, a papal representative led Luther into open disagreement with some church doctrines, for which the papacy condemned him. (Bulliet 406) • Luther burned the papal bull of condemnation, rejecting the pope’s authority and beginning the Protestant Reformation. (Bulliet 406) • Protestant leader John Calvin believed that “…salvation was God’s gift to those who were predestined and that Christian congregations should be self-governing and stress simplicity in life and in worship…” (stated in The Institutes of the Christian Religion). • The Catholic Church agreed on a number of internal reforms and a reaffirmation of fundamental Catholic beliefs in the Council of Trent. These responses to the Protestant Reformation, along with the activities of the newly established Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) comprise the “Catholic Reformation.” (Bulliet 409). • Peasants and urban laborers sometimes defied their masters by adopting different faiths. • The Catholic Reformation was a religious reform movement with in the Latin Christian Church. It began in response to the Protestant Reformation, and it clarified Catholic theology and reformed clerical training and discipline. PIC.1

3. Culture and Ideas: Traditional Thinking and Witch-Hunts • Religious differences among Protestants and between them and Catholics continued to generate animosity long after the first generation of reformers…(Bulliet 409) • People believed everything, even natural events, had supernatural causes. • In the witch-hunts over 100,000 people (three-fourths of them women) were tried and about half of them executed on charges of witchcraft. (Bulliet 409) • Most witch executions occurred on Protestant land. • Torture and badgering questions persuaded many accused witches to confess to casting spells and to describe in vivid detail their encounters with the Devil and their attendance at nighttime assemblies of witches. (Bulliet 409) • Jealous and independent minded women, for example, are the types of women that would most likely be prosecuted for witch-craft; a woman who was jealous was thought to have cast a ‘bad-luck’ spell on her enemies, and a woman who was not under control of their husbands or fathers were thought to become evil. • The trial records make it clear that both the accusers and the accused believed that it was possible for anger and jealous individuals to use evil magic and the power of the Devil…(Bulliet 409) • It is believed that these ‘witch-hunts’ were performed out of fear (of the Devil), and because of the poor people’s thirst for fame and attention. • Historians can find not a single reason that explains the true reason for witch hunts. PIC. 2

4. Culture and Ideas: The Scientific Revolution • European intellectuals derived their understanding of the natural world from the writings of the Greeks and the Romans. • These writings suggested that everything on earth was reducible to four elements; that the sun, moon, planets and stars were so light and pure that they floated in crystalline spheres and rotated around the earth in perfectly circular orbits. (Bulliet 410) • During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church and the political structure reinforced the lack of scientific investigation. (Armstrong 182) • Copernicus, along with Galileo and other scientists, created the Copernican sun-centered model. This model was “initially criticized and suppressed by Protestant leaders and by the Catholic Church.” • In 1543, Copernicus published The Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies to prove his points, but it wasn’t until Galileo– who discovered the moons of Jupiter with his telescope– that the Copernican model really took off. (Armstrong 182) • Galileo published Dialog Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World in 1632, which described the rotation of Earth on its axis and how the stars’ great distance from the Earth prevented man from being able to see their position change. (Armstrong 182) • His proofs made it difficult to continue accepting the Ptolemaic model, which was the model sanctioned by the Roman Catholic Church. (Armstrong 182) • Isaac Newton’s discovery of the law of gravity showed why the planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits. Newton’s discoveries led to the development of Newtonian physics. However, Newton and other scientists did not believe that their discoveries were in conflict with religious belief. (Bulliet 411) • The Scientific Revolution contributed to a belief system known as deism, which became popular in the 1700s. The deists believed in a powerful god who created and presided over an orderly realm but who did not interfere in its workings. • Both the Scientific Revolution and the Protestant Reformation challenged the absolute authority of the pope. The Revolution challenged his authority on scientific and mathematical grounds. (Armstrong 183) PIC. 3

5. Culture and Ideas: The Early Enlightenment • The Enlightenment of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries focused on the role of mankind in relation to government. (Armstrong 184) • Because the vast majority of their populations were Christian, the best way to rule was to align oneself with God. Monarchs became convinced that God had ordained their right to govern, and that meant that people had a moral and religious obligation to obey them. This concept was known as the divine right. (Armstrong 184) • The pope also claimed to be ordained by God, so the question of ultimate authority became very confusing. During the Reformation, monarchs who resented the power of the Church supported the reformists, like Luther and Calvin, while other monarchs allied themselves with the Church. (Armstrong 184) • Philosophers and intellectuals began to grapple with the nature of social and political structures, and this produced the idea of the social contract, which stated that governments were formed not by divine decree, but to meet the social and economic needs of the people being governed. (Armstrong 184) • Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan)– thought that people by nature were greedy and prone to violent warfare. • John Locke (Two Treatises on Government) – had a more optimistic view of human nature, believing that mankind, for the most part, was good. Also believed that all men were born equal to one another and had a natural and unalienable rights to life, liberty, and property. • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract) – argued that the essence of freedom is to obey laws that people prescribe to themselves, taking the social contract to an extreme. • Enlightenment writers didn’t presume that government had divine authority, but instead worked backward from the individual and proposed governmental systems that would best serve the interest of the people by protecting individual rights and liberties. (Armstrong 185) PIC. 4

6. Social and Economic Life: The Bourgeoisie • Europe's cities experienced spectacular growth between 1500 and 1700. • Bourgeoisie – burghers, town dwellers • Bourgeoisie is a French term that refers to the urban class that dominated in activates such as manufacturing, finance, and trade (usually the wealthy). • The Netherlands provided many good examples of bourgeoisie enterprise in the seventeenth century; manufacturers and skilled craftsmen turned out a variety of goods in the factories and workshops of many cities and towns in the province of Holland. (Bulliet 413) • The Dutch conducted more than half of all oceangoing commercial shipping in the world in the seventeenth century. • Amsterdam's growth, built on trade and finance, exemplifies the power of seventeenth-century bourgeoisie enterprise. (Bulliet 413) • The expansion of maritime trade led to new designs for merchant ships. Using timber imported from northern Europe, shipyards in Dutch ports built their own vast fleets and other ships for export. • Partnerships between merchants and governments led to the development of joint-stock companies and stock exchanges. Governments also played a key role in the improvement of Europe's transportation infrastructure. (Bulliet 415) • The Dutch built numerous canals for transport and to drain the lowlands for agriculture; one of the most important was the 150-mile Canal du Midi in France, built to link the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. (Bulliet 415) • The English government used its naval might to break Dutch dominance in overseas trade and to extended England’s colonial empire. Some successful members of the bourgeoisie in England and France chose to use their wealth to raise their social status. (Bulliet 415) • Landowners that retired from their jobs could become a member of the gentry. The gentry loaned money to impoverished peasants and to members of nobility and in time increased their ownership of land. PIC. 5

7. Social and Economic Life: Peasants and Laborers • Serfdom, which bound men and women to land own by a local lord, had been in deep decline since the great plague of the mid-fourteenth century. African slaves were one of the main sources of Eastern Europe’s economy, and while Western Europe no longer used slaves, New World crops helped its peasants avoid starvation. • Agriculture in Europe had improved a little after 1300. Peasants had good years and bad years, of which brought small surpluses and famine, relevantly. (Bulliet 416) • Little Ice Age – a period of time that began in the 1590’s, where average temperatures fell only a few degrees. • Potatoes and maize, once a hedge against famine, became staples for the rural poor. (Bulliet 416) • High consumption of wood for heating, cooking, construction, shipbuilding, and industrial uses led to severe deforestation in Europe in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Shortages drove the cost of wood up; Europeans began to use coal instead of wood. (Bulliet 416) • By the late eighteenth century deforestation had become an issue even in Sweden and Russia. (Bulliet 416) • Deforestation had particularly severe effects on the rural poor who had relied on free access to forests for wood, building materials, nuts and berries, and wild game. (Bulliet 416) • The urban poor consisted of “deserving poor” (permanent residents) and large numbers of “unworthy poor”—migrants, peddlers, beggars, and criminals. (Bulliet 416) • Misery provoked many rebellions in early modern Europe. PIC. 6

8. Social and Economic Life: Women and the Family • Women’s status and work were closely tied to their husband’s and families’. (Bulliet 417) • It was a rule that women everywhere ranked below men, and that one should not forget that her class and wealth defined a woman’s position in life more than her sex; the wife or daughter of a wealthy man had a much better life than any poor man. (Bulliet 417) • A good marriage was of great importance, since unmarried women and widows were less well off than their married sisters. (Bulliet 417) • European young men and women could chose their own spouses, but ironically, privileged families were more inclined to control marriage plans than poor ones. • Bourgeois parents were less likely to force their children into arranged marriages, but they usually found a spouse via business transactions. • Common people in early modern Europe married relatively late because young men served long periods of apprenticeship when learning a trade and young women needed to work to earn their dowries. (Bulliet 417) • A dowry was the money and house hold goods– the amount varied by social class– that enabled a young couple to begin marriage independent of their parents. (Bulliet 417) • Bourgeois parents put great emphasis on education and promoted the establishment of schools. (Bulliet 417) • Most schools barred female students, as did most guild and professions. This explains why women were not prominent in the cultural Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment. • Women in early modern Europe were more prominent in the creation of culture; many literate women were painters, musicians, and writers.

9. Political Innovations: State Development • City-states and principalities abounded, either independently or bound into loose federations, of which the Holy Roman Empire of the German heartland was the most notable example. (Bulliet 418) • Charles of Burgundy, descendant of the Austrian Habsburg family, was chosen by the Holy Roman Empire and inherited the thrones of Castile and Aragon, with their colonial empires, the Austrian Habsburg possessions, and the position of Holy Roman Emperor. (Bulliet 418) • Charles hoped to centralize his imperial power and lead a Christian coalition to halt the advance into southeastern Europe of the Ottoman Empire. (Bulliet 418) • Charles and his Christian allies eventually halted the Ottomans at the gates of Vienna in 1529, although Ottoman attacks continued on and off until 1697. • Charles’s efforts to forge his several possessions into Europe’s strongest state failed. • King Francis I of France, who had lost to Charles in the election for Holy Roman Emperor, openly supported the Muslim Turks to weaken his rival. (Bulliet 418) • Lutheran German princes rebelled against the French-speaking Catholic Charles, seizing church lands and giving rise to the German Wars of Religion. • When Charles abdicated the throne, Spain went to his son Philip while a weakened Holy Roman Empire went to his brother Ferdinand. (Bulliet 418) • The most successful rulers reduced the autonomy of the church and the nobility in their states, while making them part of a unified national structure with the monarch at its head. • Bringing the nobles and other powerful interests into a centralized political system took longer and led to more diverse outcomes. (Bulliet 419) PIC. 7

10. Political Innovations: Religious Policies • The rulers of Spain and France successfully defended the Catholic tradition against Protestant challenges. (Bulliet 419) • King Phillip of Spain used an ‘ecclesiastical court’ to make sure no one would resist his authority. (Bulliet 419-422) • Suspected protestants, as well as critics of the king, found themselves accused of heresy, and offense punishable by death. Even those who were acquitted of the charge learned not to oppose the king again. (Bulliet 422) • In France, Prince Henry of Navarre ‘embraced’ the Catholic faith. (Bulliet 422) • In their embrace of a union of church and state, the new Bourbon king, Henry IV, his son King Louis XIII, and his grandson Louis XIV even revoked the Edict of Nantes, by which his grandfather had granted religious freedom to his protestant supporters in 1598. • Henry VIII had initially been a strong defender of the papacy against Lutheran criticism. But when Henry failed to obtain a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, he challenged the papacy’s authority over the church in his kingdom. • King Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England. (Bulliet 422) • Henry used his authority to disturb monasteries and vents and seize their lands, of which he gave to powerful allies and sold some to pay for a new navy. • Under Henry and his successors, the new Anglican church moved away from Roman Catholicism in ritual and theology much less than what was wanted by English Puritans. PIC. 8

11. Political Innovations: Monarchies in England and France • The rulers of England and France went through some very intense conflicts with their leading subjects over the limits of royal authority. • King Charles I of England ruled for eleven years without summoning Parliament, his kingdom’s representative body, and because of this, he raised funds by coercing “loans” from wealthy subjects and applying existing tax laws more broadly. • In England, a conflict between Parliament and king led to a civil war and the establishment of a Puritan republic under Oliver Cromwell. • English Civil War – lasted from 1642 – 1649; led to the arrest of King Charles I’s parliamentary critics. • The English Civil War led to the growth of absolutism, and with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the English Bill of Rights of 1689, ensured that England would be a constitutional monarchy. (Bulliet 423) • After the Stuart line was restored, Parliament enforced its will on the monarchy when it drove King James II from the throne in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and forced his successors, William and Mary, to sign a document, the Bill of Rights, that limited the power of the crown. (Bulliet 422) • In France, the Bourbon kings were able to circumvent the representative assembly known as the Estates General and develop an absolutist style of government. Louis XIV’s finance minister Colbert was able to increase revenue through more efficient tax collection and by promoting economic growth while Louis entertained and controlled the French nobility by requiring them to attend his court at Versailles. (Bulliet 423) • John Locke (Second Treatise of Civil Government) – disputed monarchial claims to absolute authority from the consent of the governed and, like every one else, were subjected to law, Locke argued: citizens had not only the right but also the duty to rebel. PIC. 9

12. Political Innovations: Warfare and Diplomacy • The Thirty Years war caused depopulation and an economic decline (in the Holy Roman Empire) (Armstrong 185) • “…Cannons, muskets, and commoner foot soldiers became the mainstays of European armies. Armies grew in size, and most European states maintained standing armies (except England, which maintained a standing navy)…” (Bulliet 423) • Europeans devised new command structures, signal techniques, and marching drills. • Developments in naval technology during this period included warships with multiple tiers of cannon and four-wheel cannon carriages that made reloading easier. England’s rising sea power began under King Henry VIII, who spent heavily on ships and promoted a domestic iron-smelting industry to supply cannon. • England took the lead in the development of new naval technology, as was demonstrated when the English Royal Navy defeated Spain’s Catholic Armada in 1588, signaling an end to Spain’s military dominance in Europe. (Bulliet 424) • The four powers of Europe—France, Britain, Austria, and Russia maintained a balance of power that prevented any one power from becoming too strong for about two centuries. • Russia emerged as a major power in Europe after its modernized armies defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War. PIC. 10

13. Political Innovations: Paying the Piper • “…The rulers of European states needed to raise new revenue to pay the heavy costs of their wars; the most successful made profitable alliances with commercial elites…” (Bulliet 425) • Spain was sixteenth century Europe’s mightiest state. It illustrates how the financial drains of an aggressive military policy and the failure to promote economic development could lead to decline. • King Phillip II’s reign caused dept, since the wars on the Ottomans, northern European Protestants, and rebellious Dutch. • Gold and silver was mainly found in Spain’s treasury. • 1650 - England used its naval power to break Dutch dominance in overseas trade (Bulliet 425) • English government collected taxes directly and created a central bank. • The French government streamlined tax collection, used protective tariffs to promote domestic industries, and improved its transportation network. (Bulliet 427) • The debt’s run up by the Anglo-Dutch Wars helped persuade the English monarchy to greatly enlarge the government’s role in managing the economy. The result of this is called a “financial revolution”. (Bullet 427) PIC.11

14. Bibliography • Armstrong, Monty. Cracking the AP World History Exam. 2010. New York: Random House, Inc, 2009. Print • Bulliet, Richard W.. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Third. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. Print. • "Chapter 17 Transformations in Europe 1500-1750." Course Notes. Web. 26 Oct 2009. <http://www.course-notes.org/World_History/Outlines/The_Earth_and_Its_Peoples_4th_Edition_Outlines/Chapter_17_Transformations_in_0>. • "Chapter 16 Outline." Scribd. Web. 26 Oct 2009. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/2366803/Chapter-16-Outline>.

15. Bibliography (Pictures) PIC. 1: http://www.essential-architecture.com/STYLE/800px-Petersdom.jpg PIC. 2: http://tribe4mian.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/salem-witch-trials.jpg PIC. 3: http://e-ducation.net/scientists/Jan_Matejko-Astronomer_Copernicus-Conversation_with_God.jpg PIC. 4: http://www.canvasreplicas.com/images/Four%20Philosophers%20Peter%20Paul%20Rubens.jpg PIC. 5: http://livingviajes.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/canal-du-midi.jpg PIC. 6: http://postfrost.se/postfrost/wp-content/uploads/dsc00554.jpg PIC. 7: http://img5.travelblog.org/Photos/32011/347295/f/3136493-Stained-glass-in-Reykjavik-Cathedral-0.jpg PIC. 7: http://www.folger.edu/html/exhibitions/tolerance/images/6.jpg PIC. 8: http://www.essential-architecture.com/PA/043-VersaillesCourHonneur.jpg PIC. 9: http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/SpanishArmadaWK-PubDom.jpg PIC.10: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_ESC4bygtp2M/ScBXopsicDI/AAAAAAAAHh0/VVew7xEGHE8/s400/Poll+Paul+Vos+The+Tax+Collector+1543.jpg