The Referential Aim and the Mode of Narration

1. The Referential Aim and the Mode of Narration

2. Section One:The Referential Aim • The general characteristics of the Referential Aim are as follows: • 1) A thesis is presented. • 2) Evidence to support the thesis is offered. • 3) Accuracy and clarity are maintained. • 4) Language appropriate to the topic is used.

3. A Thesis is Presented • A thesis in a referential work is what the writer is going to prove about the topic. • A thesis in referential writing differs from a persuasive claim in two ways: • 1) A thesis can be proved beyond a reasonable doubt. • 2) A thesis seeks to examine the subject matter thoroughly rather than present a defense of one side of an issue.

4. Evidence to Support the Thesis • Evidence that supports a referential thesis is held to a higher standard than evidence that supports a persuasive claim. • Referential evidence is made up of facts, examples, testimonials and statistics. • In addition, when you incorporate evidence that is not common knowledge into a referential essay, you must give a reference (hence, “referential”) to tell where the data came from.

5. Accuracy and Clarity Are Maintained • The evidence presented in a referential paper must be accurate and clearly stated. • Accuracy is insured by the inclusion of data that can be objectively supported—either by some authority, by the credibility of the writer, or by logic—and the exclusion of all other types of data.. • In some cases (for example in newspapers and magazines) we can assume that the data are correct, or if not that they will be corrected later. • However, for the purposes of this class, all referential assignments must be accompanied by a works cited page unless otherwise indicated by the instructor.

6. Language Appropriate to the Topic • All referential essays are written in formal, neutral language (unbiased and unslanted). • Standard Edited American English is to be used at all times. • All terms and/or concepts that may be unfamiliar to the reader must be defined. • Third person pronouns (he/she/it) must be used at all times for formal referential essays. Depending on the assignment, first person pronouns may be appropriate for informal essays that employ the Referential Aim.

7. Statistics: In-Depth • There are two kinds of statistics: • 1) Descriptive Statistics: descriptive statistics are used to describe and summarize numerical information that has been collected. Descriptive statistics are very reliable. They report the results of quantitative research. • 2) Inferential Statistics: inferential statistics (also known as sampling statistics) are used to make predictions (inferences) about a larger group based on data collected from a smaller group (sample). Because an inference is literally an educated guess, inferential statistics are less reliable than descriptive statistics.

8. Inferential Statistics: Sample • The basis of all inferential statistics is a sample. A sample is a smaller group from which information is collected in order to make predictions about a larger group. • A sample should be representative of the larger group it will be used to make predictions about. • In addition to coming from the same geographical area, a sample should be large enough to account for inevitable variations of opinion between individuals. • As a general rule: the larger the sample group, the more representative the sample will be—and therefore, the more accurate the predictions.

9. Inferential Statistics: Survey • A survey is a set of questions or measurements given to the sample group (sometimes the word “survey” is also used to refer to an opinion poll). • If the survey is a set of questions, they should be clear and unambiguous (for example a survey with a simple yes/no answer format is less ambiguous than one with a set of five possible answers for each question). • The questions should be phrased in a neutral rather than a leading fashion (for example a question that asked, “Do you agree with the domestic policies of that two-timing womanizer Bill Clinton?” would not be appropriate).

10. Inferential Statistics: Sampling Error • Sampling error is an estimation of the amount of fluctuation possible for each predicted response on the part of the larger group. Since fluctuation can occur on either side of the predicted value (the prediction could be greater or less than the actual response) the sampling error is usually reported in a plus-or-minus percentage point format (for example +/- 5%). • The larger the sampling error, the less reliable the data. • A good ballpark figure is +/- 3%. A sampling error of 3 or less usually means a reliable result. Higher than 3 is not so good. Higher than 5 is practically worthless.

11. Inferential Statistics: Rating Surveys • When you are trying to judge how reliable a set of inferential statistics is, you should ask yourself the following three questions: • 1) Who did the survey? There are many good companies out there doing reliable work (for example Harris Poll, AP, UPI, etc.). • 2) Who paid for the survey? How trustworthy is smoking data paid for by cigarette companies? Not very. • 3) What is the margin of error? Apply the 3% rule as a general baseline.

12. Section Two: The Mode of Narration (Narration of Process) • The general characteristics of the Mode of Narration are as follows: • The organizing principle of the Mode of Narration is the relationship between events in time. • We present one occurrence after another so that they create a coherent sequence. • Each event is connected causally to each event that precedes it and each event that follows it. • Narrations of all kinds are dynamic (that is, they change over time).

13. The Mode of Narration: Types • There are two kinds of narration: • 1) Narration of Event: used to tell a story. • 2) Narration of Process: used to show the steps in a process or to examine causes and effects. • These two types of narration are very different. They have different uses and different characteristics. • In this Module we will study Narration of Process. Narration of Event was covered in Module 3.

14. Narration of Process • There are two kinds of Narration of Process: • 1) Instructional Process: tells “how to” do something. Instructional process is written in the second person (you, your, yours). An instructional process narrative is a series of commands addressed to the reader. A recipe is an example of an instructional narration of process. • 2) Informational Process:tells how something is done. Informational process may be written in the third person (he/she/it) or in the first person (I, me, my). An informational process narrative is a detailed, step-by-step account written in complete sentences. An example of an informational narration of process is the Herman Melville essay “Making Tappa” (Packet, 66-7).

15. Narration of Process, cont. • For the purposes of this course we will be talking only about informational process narratives. Do not use instructional narration of process unless specifically assigned to do so. • A narration of process does not have the five stages that a narration of event has. • All events in a narration of process are of equal importance. • There is no tension. The resolution is simply the completion of the last step in the process being explained.

16. Narration of Process, continued • The first thing to do with an informational process narrative is to divide the process up into a series of steps. • Next, the writer must make sure the steps are arranged in time order. • Then he/she must subdivide each step in the process up into the series of individual actions needed to complete it. • Finally, the writer should fill in any relevant details and/or advice needed by the audience in order to get the job done.

17. Cause and Effect • As with Narration of Event and Narration of Process, when we organize with Cause and Effect, we arrange events in the order in which they occur in time. • However, when organizing by Cause and Effect, we are interested in telling not only what happened, but why. • Causes and effects are present in all narrations. But when we try to establish cause and effect formally, we try to make the connection explicit.

18. Cause and Effect, continued • The structure of cause and effect narrations reflects not only the time order that all narrations have, but also two levels of causation—immediate and ultimate. • Therefore, there are two kinds of cause and effect: • 1) Immediate Cause and Effect: seeks to explain only the event itself (in the present, recent past, and near future). The limited scope makes it easier to prove. • 2) Ultimate Cause and Effect: seeks to explain the root cause of an event. It delves into the far past and the distant future (far enough forward or back to establish the ultimate cause and predict the ultimate effect). Ultimate cause and effect can be very difficult to prove.

19. Cause and Effect: An Example • The following traffic accident can be used as an excellent example of the difference between Immediate Cause and Effect and Ultimate Cause and Effect. • A car fails to stop at a red light, and is hit by another car that is zooming through on green. The immediate cause of the accident is the first car’s failure to stop. The immediate effect of the accident is that both drivers are injured and both cars are smashed. • However, the ultimate cause of the accident was the first driver’s failure to maintain his brakes. The ultimate effect is that both drivers will have long, painful rehabs to go through in order to recover from their injuries.