KOMPENDIUM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN DAN PEMBANGUNAN KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN

1. KOMPENDIUM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN DAN PEMBANGUNAN KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN Dikoleksi oleh: Eric Triyono dan Soemarno PS PSL - KLP PPSUB April 2012

2. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN: AMENITAS DAN KOMFORMITAS DICTIONARY: QUICK_ENGLISH-INDONESIAN Definition: amenity “kenikmatan, keramahan” DEFINITION OF “AMENITY” The quality of being pleasant or attractive; agreeableness. Something that contributes to physical or material comfort. A feature that increases attractiveness or value, especially of a piece of real estate or a geographic location. amenities Social courtesies. DEFINITION OF AMENITY Amenity: the quality of being pleasant or agreeable b (1): the attractiveness and value of real estate or of a residential structure (2): a feature conducive to such attractiveness and value Usually plural: something (as a conventional social gesture) that conduces to smoothness or pleasantness of social relationships <maintaining social amenities> Amenity: something that conduces to comfort, convenience, or enjoyment <hotels with modern amenities> Roget's Thesaurus: Amenity The quality of being pleasant and friendly: affability, agreeability, agreeableness, amiability, amiableness, congeniality, congenialness, cordiality, cordialness, friendliness, geniality, genialness, pleasantness, sociability, sociableness, warmth. Seeattitude/good attitude/bad attitude/neutral attitude, good/bad. Anything that increases physical comfort: comfort, convenience, facility (often used in plural). Seecomfort/discomfort. A courteous act or courteous acts that contribute to smoothness and ease in dealings and social relationships civility, courtesy, pleasantry, politeness, propriety (used in plural). Seecourtesy/discourtesy.

3. KENYAMANAN = AMENITAS OXFORD DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY: AMENITY Pleasantness; those aspects of an area such as housing, space, and recreational and leisure activities which make it an attractive place to live in. By this definition, a 1995 survey found that Henley-on-Thames had the highest amenity of any town in the UK. KENYAMANAN = amenity (Oxford Dictionary of Politics) Term denoting, in a very broad way, the public benefits accruing from the condition of a place, such as aesthetic beauty, clean air and water, or good street lighting. The function of the concept of amenity is therefore to embrace those factors in a decision about environmental development which are excluded from, and sometimes in contradiction to, considerations of commercial productivity. In UK politics, the ‘amenity clause’—a requirement that public bodies pay due regard to the interests of amenity—was first mentioned in legislation concerned with hydroelectric power in Scotland in 1943. It became a general duty of all public bodies with respect to the countryside in 1968, though the requirement necessarily weakened during the acts of privatization during the 1980s, being replaced by a number of regulative and ‘watchdog’ bodies. The ‘amenity movement’ refers to private organizations defending the interests of amenity, especially pressure groups concerned with particular towns or areas. The number of these grew rapidly in the 1970s.

4. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN: Interdisciplinary Studies Disiplin ilmu pendukung: Academic disciplines: Ilmu-ilmu dasar Permasalahan di dunia nyata: Pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam, pembangunan dan dampak lingkungan ANALISIS EKOLOGI ANALISIS & VALUASI EKONOMI ANALISIS SOSIAL Hasil dan Kesimpulan: Keseimbangan ekonomi, sosial, dan ekologi HASIL INTERDISIPLIN RISET Metode Penelitian pendukung: Scientific methods System theory and approaches

5. KENYAMANAN = COMFORT . DEFINITION OF “COMFORT” Dictionary: quick_english-indonesian Definition: comfort Kenikmatan, kesenangan, lipur, memperlalaikan, menenangkan, nikmat. Dictionary.com “com·fort “: verb (used with object) to soothe, console, or reassure; bring cheer to: They tried to comfort her after her loss. to make physically comfortable. Obsolete . to aid; support or encourage. “com·fort “: noun relief in affliction; consolation; solace: Her presence was a comfort to him. a feeling of relief or consolation: Her forgiveness afforded him great comfort. a person or thing that gives consolation: She was a great comfort to him. a cause or matter of relief or satisfaction: The patient's recovery was a comfort to the doctor. a state of ease and satisfaction of bodily wants, with freedom from pain and anxiety: He is a man who enjoys his comfort. World English Dictionary “comfort “: noun 1. a state of ease or well-being 2. relief from affliction, grief, etc 3. a person, thing, or event that brings solace or ease 4. obsolete  support 5. ( usually plural ) something that affords physical ease and relaxation “comfort “: verb 6. to ease the pain of; soothe; cheer 7. to bring physical ease to [from Old French confort,  from Late Latin confortāre to strengthen very much, from Latin con-  (intensive) + fortis strong]

6. KENYAMANAN = COMFORT Comfort (or comfortability, or being comfortable) is a sense of physical or psychological ease, often characterized as a lack of hardship. A degree of psychological comfort can be achieved by recreating experiences that are associated with pleasant memories, such as engaging in familiar activities, maintaining the presence of familiar objects, and consumption of comfort foods. Comfort is a particular concern in health care, as providing comfort to the sick and injured is one goal of healthcare, and can facilitate recovery. Persons who are surrounded with things that provide psychological comfort may be described as being within their comfort zone. Persons who are lacking in comfort are uncomfortable, or experiencing discomfort. Because of the personal nature of positive associations, psychological comfort is highly subjective. The use of "comfort" as a verb generally implies that the subject is in a state of discomfort or affliction. Where the term is used to describe the support given to someone who has experienced a tragedy, the word is synonymous with consolation or solace. However, comfort is used much more broadly, as one can provide physical comfort to someone who is not in a position to be uncomfortable. For example, a person might sit in a chair without discomfort, but still find the addition of a pillow to the chair to increase their feeling of comfort. The comfort zone is a behavioural state within which a person operates in an anxiety-neutral condition, using a limited set of behaviours to deliver a steady level of performance, usually without a sense of risk. A person's personality can be described by his or her comfort zones. Highly successful persons may routinely step outside their comfort zones, to accomplish what they wish. A comfort zone is a type of mental conditioning that causes a person to create and operate mental boundaries. Such boundaries create an unfounded sense of security. Like inertia, a person who has established a comfort zone in a particular axis of his or her life, will tend to stay within that zone without stepping outside of it. To step outside a person's comfort zone, they must experiment with new and different behaviours, and then experience the new and different responses that then occur within their environment. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

7. KUALITAS LINGKUNGAN Environmental quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment, either generalized or local, as they impinge on human beings and other organisms. It is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the requirements of one or more species and or to any human need or purpose. Environmental quality is a general term which can refer to varied characteristics that relate to the natural environment as well as the built environment, such as air and water purity or pollution, noise and the potential effects which such characteristics may have on physical and mental health caused by human activities. KOTA RAMAH LINGKUNGAN A sustainable city, or eco-city is a city designed with consideration of environmental impact, inhabited by people dedicated to minimization of required inputs of energy, water and food, and waste output of heat, air pollution - CO2, methane, and water pollution. Richard Register first coined the term "ecocity" in his 1987 book, Ecocity Berkeley: building cities for a healthy future. Timothy Beatley and Steffen Lehmann (2010) , who have written extensively on the field of industrial ecology is sometimes used in planning these cities. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

8. KENYAMANAN TERMAL Thermal comfort is a term used by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, an international body. It is defined as the state of mind in humans that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55). Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers. Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. It has been long recognised that the sensation of feeling hot or cold is not just dependent on air temperature alone. Factors determining thermal comfort include: Personal factors (health, psychology, sociology & situational factors) Insulative clothing (Clo Value) Activity levels (Met Rate) General Factors Air temperature Mean radiant temperature Relative humidity Drifts and ramps in operative temperature Localized factors Air movement/velocity Radiant asymmetry Floor surface temperatures Air temperature stratification. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

9. KENYAMANAN = AMENITY In real property and lodging, amenities are any tangible or untangible benefits of a property, especially those that increase its attractiveness or value or that contribute to its comfort or convenience. Tangible amenities might include attractive guest rooms (lodging), dining, parks, swimming pools,golf courses, health club facilities, party rooms, theater or media rooms, bike paths, community centers, services, or garages, for example. Untangible amenities might include pleasant views, nearby activities, good schools (in the case of residential real estate), or a low crime rate, all of which add to the desirability of a property. A small number of people also use the word "amenity" for lavatory, bathroom and personal hygiene facilities. MENUJU KOTA RAMAH LINGKUNGAN These ecological cities are achieved through various means, such as: Green roofs Zero-emission transport Zero-energy building Sustainable urban drainage systems or SUDS energy conservation systems/devices Xeriscaping - garden and landscape design for water conservation Key Performance Indicators - development and operational management tool providing guidance and M&V for city administrators. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

10. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN Environmental amenities, like beautiful vistas and famous natural landmarks, are highly valued by many people, but it is difficult to determine what would constitute an optimal supply of them. Since enjoyment of an amenity by one person does not preclude enjoyment by many others, and it is impractical to limit such enjoyment to those who pay, individuals have an incentive to understate their demand for environmental amenities, thus leading to their underproduction. On the other hand, interest groups might spur government to overestimate the unarticulated demand. Furthermore, much demand is not policy relevant, since individuals with a moderate taste for particular amenities might be more than surfeited by the supply that others voluntarily provide. Building upon this framework, the author contends that commonly employed methodologies for ascertaining the value of amenities are seriously flawed, and that attempts to provide very high levels of amenities without commensurate public expenditures may damage private property rights. (Environmental Amenities, Private Property and Public Policy. Steven J. Eagle. Natural Resources Journal, 2004. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 425-444). Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

11. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN   The application of three indirect valuation methods (via market goods) is reported here: the health production method, a consumer preferences (for nonmarket goods) model, and the cost of illness method. The first and second methods are (economic) behavior-based approaches where willingness to pay for an environmental good is derived by exploiting relationships in consumption between the public good and market good(s). The third method is based on a physical relationship—a dose-response function—between the environmental good and health. The direct valuation approach encompassed three contingent valuation elicitation formats: open-ended, modified iterative bidding game, and referenda-style binary choice. CVM - THE CONTINGENT VALUATION METHOD The contingent valuation method involves directly asking people, in a survey, how much they would be willing to pay for specific environmental services. In some cases, people are asked for the amount of compensation they would be willing to accept to give up specific environmental services. It is called “contingent” valuation, because people are asked to state their willingness to pay, contingent on a specific hypothetical scenario and description of the environmental service. Sumber: (A comparative study of environmental amenity valuations. Mordechai Shechter. Environmental & Resource Economics. Volume 1. No. 2 June 1991. Pages: 129-155). ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

12. Natural Resource/Environment Total Economic Value Use values Non-use values Direct use values Indirect use values Option values Existence values Bequest values Total Economic Value is made up of use value and non-use value. By definition, use values derive from the actual use of the environment while non-use values are non-instrumental values which are in the real nature of the thing but unassociated with actual use, or the option to use the thing. Instead such values are taken to be entities that reflect people’s preferences, but include concern for, sympathy with, and respect for the rights or welfare of non-human beings.

13. EXAMPLE: TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE OF FORESTS The use value derives from a concrete use of environmental goods. Even the value attributed to goods to individuals is included in the use value, because they enjoy to see a landscape or the can swim in a lake; even those ones can be considered users of environmental goods, even if in a unappropriate and under-destructive manner. Every use, in any moment and by anyone are realized to create use values, which are more or less measurable since they derive from their current use. Nonuse values referring to intrinsic benefits, i.e. those deriving from the mere existence of environmental goods.

14. Methods for the monetary evaluation of the environment Monetary Evaluation Methods Demand Curve Approaches Non-Demand Curve Approaches Demand Curve Approach Non-Demand Curve Approach Expressed Preference Methods Revealed Preference method Dose-Response Replacement Costs Mitigation Behavior Opportunity Cost CVM • Travel-Cost Method • - Hedonic Pricing

15. VALUASI EKONOMI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN There have been significant improvements over the past four decades in our ability to estimate the economic value of environmental amenities and disamenities. The development of many new techniques has broadened what can be measured to include climate change impacts, damages from hazardous waste sites and air pollution emissions, and the value of many ecosystem services. We review the major economic valuation techniques, as well as numerous applications of these valuation methods. However, there remain challenges ahead. The interface between economics and the natural and physical sciences must be strengthened. Additional well-controlled “natural experiments” are always needed. The application of valuation methods outside of the United States remains a monumental task. Reliable measures of nonuse values remain elusive. (The Economic Valuation of Environmental Amenities and Disamenities: Methods and Applications. Robert Mendelsohn and Sheila Olmstead. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. Vol. 34: 325-347 (Volume publication date November 2009). First published online as a Review in Advance on July 7, 2009. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-011509-135201). PENDEKATAN Non-Demand Curve • Dose-Response Approach requires the existence of data linking human, plant or animal physiological response to pollution stress. If for example, a given level of pollution is associated with a change in output then it is usually the case that the output can be valued at market or shadow prices. • The Replacement Cost technique looks at the cost of replacing or restoring a damaged asset and uses this cost as a measure of the benefit of restoration. • Mitigation Behavior can sometimes be observed in the pollution context. Householders may purchase insulation to defend their homes from noise pollution, as a substitute for a reduction in noise at source. • In the Opportunity Cost Approach no direct attempt is made to value environmental benefits. Instead, the benefits of the activity causing environmental degradation are estimated in order to set a benchmark for what the environmental benefits would have to be for the development not to be worthwhile.

16. KENYAMANAN RUANG TERBUKA HIJAU This study estimates the influence of proximity to water bodies and park amenities on residential housing values in Knox County, Tennessee, using the hedonic price approach. Values for proximity to water bodies and parks are first estimated globally with a standard ordinary least squares (OLS) model. A locally weighted regression model is then employed to investigate spatial nonstationarity and generate local estimates for individual sources of each amenity. The local model reveals some important local differences in the effects of proximity to water bodies and parks on housing price. (Measuring the Contribution of Water and Green Space Amenities to Housing Values: An Application and Comparison of Spatially Weighted Hedonic Models. Seong-Hoon Cho, James Michael Bowker, William M. Park. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics. Volume : 31 (2006). Issue: 03 (December). HPM – HEDONIC PRICING METHOD The hedonic pricing method is used to estimate economic values for ecosystem or environmental services that directly affect market prices. It is most commonly applied to variations in housing prices that reflect the value of local environmental attributes. It can be used to estimate economic benefits or costs associated with: - environmental quality, including air pollution, water pollution, or noise - environmental amenities, such as aesthetic views or proximity to recreational sites The basic premise of the hedonic pricing method is that the price of a marketed good is related to its characteristics, or the services it provides. For example, the price of a car reflects the characteristics of that car—transportation, comfort, style, luxury, fuel economy, etc. Therefore, we can value the individual characteristics of a car or other good by looking at how the price people are willing to pay for it changes when the characteristics change. The hedonic pricing method is most often used to value environmental amenities that affect the price of residential properties. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

17. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN & MANFAAT CUACA (Sumber: http://www.cato.org/pubs/books/climate/089-102.pdf) THEORY OF AMENITY VALUES There is a large and growing economic literature on such amenity values, that is, on characteristics that people value. Locational advantage can be reflected in the willingness of workers to accept lower wages or in the bidding up by business and home buyers of land values. If land values are raised enough, wages could even be forced higher to maintain real incomes. It is likely, however, that if workers willingly work for less in a region that they find attractive, the amount in wages that they are willing to forgo understates the benefits of the location. Some benefits have probably been capitalized into land values and are reflected in higher housing costs. Living costs are raised, thus reducing the amount of wages that workers will sacrifice to live where it is pleasant. On the downside of climate change is the prospect of the loss of various species that are unable to adapt. Although paleontologists estimate that roughly 99 percent of all species that have ever existed have become extinct, most people feel it is a tragedy to lose additional unique animals and plants. The general public and scientists both value species for aesthetic, moral, and practical reasons; in medical research, for example, various animals and plants can provide valuable hormones, chemicals, or genes. Current evidence suggests the opposite. Several scientists have recently reported an increase from 1981 to 1991 in plant growth in the northern high latitudes (Myneni et al. 1997). More vigorous plant development, while possibly choking out a few species, provides a more plentiful habitat for animals. Similar reports have originated in Australia where researchers have found that warmer weather, more rainfall, and perhaps greater CO2 have led to bumper crops (Nicholls 1997). In this connection one should note that the IPCC has postponed and lowered its predicted warming of 4.5°F by 2040 to 3.6° by 2100 A.D., indicating that climate change will be considerably more gradual than believed previously. The evidence of greater growth in fauna, together with the lengthening of the period of any warming, suggests that fears of extinction of major species are overblown. Moreover, biodiversity appears to be greatest in the tropics. Warm wet areas are more congenial toward species proliferation than are the temperate zones. Climate change is most likely to increase that portion of the globe that is moist and hot, thus increasing the potential habitat for many species. Plants and animals that have adapted to temperate or cold climates can move toward the poles. While cold climates are not devoid of animals and plants, the more frigid the climate, the more desert-like is the region, with only a small number of individual species. Antarctica is virtually free of plants and only a very few animals can withstand the rigors of that climate. A warmer, wetter world, therefore, is more likely to promote biodiversity than to destroy it. Climate change would, by definition, affect the pattern of temperature and rainfall to which animals and plants would be exposed. Although many species would adapt, especially as the change would take place over a considerable time period, not all would survive. In the pre-industrial world, animals and some plants adversely affected by a warmer world migrated northward to maintain a suitable environment. Environmentalists, however, now claim that humans have taken over so much of the globe that other animals might find it difficult to move northward. Moreover, those species that adjusted to a mountain ecology could move only a limited amount higher before reaching the summit. In both cases, a few species might not be able to survive. In a higher CO2 world, most plants would probably not be at risk. Although the temperature may well rise, an environment richer in carbon dioxide is likely to stimulate plant growth. Moreover, higher CO2 levels induce a more efficient use of water in plants and make them more drought resistant. In addition, most models suggest that, worldwide, rainfall should increase. It would be perverse to assume that additional precipitation would fall only over the oceans. Nevertheless, there are some species of plants represented only by small numbers in very localized regions; some of these could become extinct. The Value of Biodiversity. Thomas E. Lovejoy, asserts that ‘‘biodiversity matters to human beings in a variety of ways.’’ He goes on to stress that many items that humans consume stem originally from animal and plant life. A variety of plants and animals facilitate biotechnological advances that can provide better crops or other useful products. Lovejoy maintains that ‘‘discoveries for the advancement of medicine and understanding of the life sciences constitute one of the most powerful ways in which biodiversity can contribute to human society’’. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

18. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994) MARKET PRICES. Use prevailing prices for goods and services traded in domestic or international markets. KELEBIHAN: Market prices reflect willingness to pay for costs and benefits of forest land use options that are traded (eg timber, fuelwood, food, medicines, utensils, recreation). They may be used to construct financial accounts to compare alternative land use options from the perspective of the individual or the firm concerned with private profits and losses. Price data are relatively easy to obtain. KELEMAHAN: Market imperfections and/or policy failures may distort market prices which will therefore fail to reflect the economic value of goods or services to society as a whole. Seasonal variations and other effects on prices need to be considered when market prices are used in economic analysis. EFFICIENCY (SHADOW) PRICES. Use market prices but adjust for transfer payments, market imperfections and policy distortions. May also incorporate distribution weights, where equity concerns are made explicit. Shadow prices may also be calculated for non-marketed goods. KELEBIHAN: Efficiency prices reflect the true economic value or opportunity cost, to society as a whole, of goods and services that are traded in domestic or international markets (eg timber, fuelwood, food, medicine, utensils, recreation). KELEMAHAN: Derivation of efficiency proces is complex and may require substantial data. Apparently ‘artificial’ prices may not be accepted by decision-makers.

19. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994) HEDONIC PRICING METHOD (HPM) The value of an environmental amenity is imputed from property or labour markets. The basic assumption is that the observed property value (or wage) reflects a stream of net benefits (or working conditions) and that it is possible to isolate the value of the relevant environmental amenity or attribute. KELEBIHAN: Hedonic pricing may have potential for valuing certain tropical forest functions (eg micro-climate regulation, groundwater recharge) in terms of their impact on agricultural land values, assuming that the link between forest functions and agricultural productivity is widely known and fully reflected in agricultural land prices KELEMAHAN: Application of hedonic pricing to the environmental functions of tropical forest requires that these values are reflected in surrogate markets. The approach may be limited where markets are distorted, choices are constrained by income, information about environmental conditions is not widespread and data are scarce. KELEMAHAN HPM The scope of environmental benefits that can be measured is limited to things that are related to housing prices. The method will only capture people’s willingness to pay for perceived differences in environmental attributes, and their direct consequences. Thus, if people aren’t aware of the linkages between the environmental attribute and benefits to them or their property, the value will not be reflected in home prices. The method assumes that people have the opportunity to select the combination of features they prefer, given their income. However, the housing market may be affected by outside influences, like taxes, interest rates, or other factors. The method is relatively complex to implement and interpret, requiring a high degree of statistical expertise. The results depend heavily on model specification. Large amounts of data must be gathered and manipulated. The time and expense to carry out an application depends on the availability and accessibility of data.

20. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994) TRAVEL COST METHOD (TCM) The travel cost approach derives willingness-to-pay for environmental benefits at specific locations by using information on the amount of money and time that people spend to visit the location. KELEBIHAN: Widely used to estimate the value of recreational sites, including public parks and wildlife reserves. It has been used to estimate willingness-to-pay for eco-tourism to tropical forest areas in some developing countries. KELEMAHAN: Data intensive; restrictive assumptions about consumer behaviour (eg trip multi-functionality); results highly sensitive to statistical methods used to specify the demand relationship. KEUNGGULAN METODE TCM • The travel cost method closely mimics the more conventional empirical techniques used by economists to estimate economic values based on market prices. • The method is based on actual behavior—what people actually do—rather than stated willingness to pay—what people say they would do in a hypothetical situation. • The method is relatively inexpensive to apply. • On-site surveys provide opportunities for large sample sizes, as visitors tend to be interested in participating. • The results are relatively easy to interpret and explain. • KELEMAHAN TCM • Interviewing visitors on site can introduce sampling biases to the analysis. • Measuring recreational quality, and relating recreational quality to environmental quality can be difficult. • Standard travel cost approaches provides information about current conditions, but not about gains or losses from anticipated changes in resource conditions. • In order to estimate the demand function, there needs to be enough difference between distances traveled to affect travel costs and for differences in travel costs to affect the number of trips made. Thus, it is not well suited for sites near major population centers where many visitations may be from "origin zones" that are quite close to one another. • The travel cost method is limited in its scope of application because it requires user participation. It cannot be used to assign values to on-site environmental features and functions that users of the site do not find valuable. It cannot be used to value off-site values supported by the site. Most importantly, it cannot be used to measure nonuse values. Thus, sites that have unique qualities that are valued by non-users will be undervalued.

21. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994) PRODUCTION FUNCTION APPROACH Estimates the value of a non-marketed resource or ecological function in terms of changes in economic activity, by modelling the physical contribution of the resource or function to economic output. KELEBIHAN: Widely used to estimate the impact of deforestation, soil erosion, wetlands and reef destruction, air and water pollution etc, on productive activities such as crop cultivation, fishing, hunting etc. KELEMAHAN: Requires explicit modelling of the ‘dose-response’ relationship between the resource or function being valued and some economic output. Application of the approach is most straightforward in the case of single use systems but becomes more complicated with multiple use systems. Problems may arise from mis-specification of the ecological-economic relationship or double counting. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

22. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994) RELATED GOODS OR SURROGATE PRICE APPROACHES. Uses information about the relationship between a non-marketed good or service and a marketed product to infer value. The barter exchange approach relies on actual exchange of non-marketed goods for marketed goods. The direct substitute approach simply assumes that a marketed good can substitute for a non-marketed good. The indirectsubstitute approach also relies on a substitute good but if the latter is not exchanged in markets its value is inferred in terms of a change in economic output (ie the direct substitute approach combined with the production function approach). KELEBIHAN: These approaches may provide a rough indicator of economic value, subject to data constraints and the degree of similarity or substitution between related goods. KELEMAHAN: The barter exchange approach requires information on the ‘rate of exchange’ between two goods. The direct substitute approach requires information on the degree of substitution between two goods. The indirect substitute approach requires information on the degree of substitution and on the contribution of the substitute good to economic output. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

23. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994)  CONSTRUCTED MARKET TECHNIQUES. Measure WTP and WTA by directly eliciting consumer preferences. Simulated Market (SM) construct an experimental market in which money actually changes hands. Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) construct a hypothetical market to elicit respondents' WTP. Contingent ranking (CR) rank and score relative preferences for amenities in qualitative rather than monetary terms. KELEBIHAN Directly estimates Hicksian welfare measure - provides best theoretical measure of WTP. SM: controlled experimental setting permits close study of factors determining preferences. CVM: only method that can measure option and existence values and provide a true measure of total economic value. CR: generates value estimate for a range of products and services without having to elicit WTP for each. KELEMAHAN Practical limitations of constructed market techniques may detract from theoretical advantages leading to poor estimates of true WTP. SM: sophisticated design and implementation may limit application in developing countries. CVM: results sensitive to numerous sources of bias in survey design and implementation. CR: does not elicit WTP directly, hence lacks theoretical advantage of other approaches. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

24. METODE VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN (Sumber: IIED, 1994) • COST-BASED VALUATION • Based on assumption that the cost of maintaining an environmental benefit is a reasonable estimate of its value. To estimate willingness to pay: • Indirect Opportunity Cost Method (IOC) uses wages foregone by labour in production of non-marketed goods; • Restoration Cost Method (RSC) uses the cost of restoring ecosystems or goods and services; • Replacement costs method (RPC) uses the cost of artificial substitutes for environmental goods and services • Relocation Costs Method (RLC) uses the cost of relocating threatened communities • Preventive Expenditure Approach (PE) uses the cost of preventing damage or degradation of environmental benefits. • Damage Costs Avoided Approach (DC) relies on the assumption that damage estimates are a measure of value. It is not a cost-based approach as it relies on the use of valuation methods described above. • KELEBIHAN: In general, it is easier to measure the costs of producing benefits than the benefits themselves, when costs comprise traded goods and services and benefits are non-marketed. The cost-based approaches are less intensive in terms of data and resource requirements. • IOC: useful in evaluating subsistence benefits where harvesting and collecting time is a major imput. • RSC: potentially useful in valuing particular environmental functions. • RPC: useful in estimating indirect use benefits when ecological data are not available for estimating damage functions with first-best methods. • RLC: only useful in valuing environmental amenities in the face of mass dislocation such as dam projects and establishment of protected areas. • PE: useful in estimating indirect use benefits when prevention technologies are available. • DC: first-best methods to estimate damage costs are useful for comparison with cost-based approaches, which implicitly assume damage is worth avoiding. • KELEMAHAN: These second-best appproaches assume that: • Expenditures provide positive net benefits, and • Net benefits generated by expenditures match the original level of benefits. • IOC: may understate benefits significantly if there is substantial producer or consumer surplus. • RSC: diminishing returns and difficulty (and time lag) of restoring previous ecosystem conditions make application of this method questionable. • RPC: difficult to ansure that net benefits of the replacement do not exceed those of the original environt function. May overstate WTP if only physical indicators of benefits are available. • RLC: in practice, benefits provided by the new location are unlikely to match those of the original location. May over or under-state WTP. • PE: mis-matching the benefits of investment in prevention to the original level of benefits may lead to spurious estimates of WTP. • DC: data or resource limitations may rule out first-best valuation methods

25. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN WISATA Contingent valuation method (CVM) is an evaluation technique for environmental amenity on the basis of attitude and preference. This paper employs CVM to value the recreational benefits of environmental amenity of Jiuzhaigou, one of the World Natural Heritage sites in China. The results show that: In 2009, Jiuzhaigou's recreational benefits is 346 million RMB, and the per capita value is 137.31 RMB; Among the factors that influence Jiuzhaigou tourists' Willingness to Pay(WTP), psychological perception factors take the greatest effect while demographics and Socio-Economic Characteristics have little correlation with WTP; Although there are varies biases in CVM measurement, it is still an effective valuation method. (Valuing recreational benefits of environmental amenity based on contingent valuation method: A case study of Jiuzhaigou. Dong Xuewang and   Zhi Ruizhi. Environmental Science and Information Application Technology (ESIAT), 2010 International Conference on 17-18 July 2010 . page(s): 91 – 94, Location: Wuhan . ISBN: 978-1-4244-7387-8) KEUNGGULAN METODE CVM Contingent valuation is enormously flexible in that it can be used to estimate the economic value of virtually anything. However, it is best able to estimate values for goods and services that are easily identified and understood by users and that are consumed in discrete units (e.g., user days of recreation), even if there is no observable behavior available to deduce values through other means. CVM is the most widely accepted method for estimating total economic value , including all types of non-use, or “passive use,” values. CVM can estimate use values , as well as existence values , option values , and bequest values . Though the technique requires competent survey analysts to achieve defensible estimates, the nature of CVM studies and the results of CVM studies are not difficult to analyze and describe. Dollar values can be presented in terms of a mean or median value per capita or per household, or as an aggregate value for the affected population. CVM has been widely used, and a great deal of research is being conducted to improve the methodology, make results more valid and reliable, and better understand its strengths and limitations.

26. . JASA-JASA EKOSISTEM Ecosystem services are those services provided by different ecosystems and natural capital that are critical to human welfare, such as the provision of clean water by wetlands, the absorption of carbon dioxide in forests, and the pollination of plants by insects. Existing economic models have not effectively valued ecosystem services. Internalizing the value of ecosystem services is a prerequisite for sustainability and for the health of the environment. Ekosistem memberikan jasa-jasa bagi seluruh umat manusia, dalam bentuk udara segar untuk bernafas, air bersih, berbagai jenis makanan, dan keindahan serta kenyamanan lingkungan. Sayangnya, dalam kurun waktu akhir-akhir ini, jasa-jasa ekosistem banyak yang mengalami kerusakan akibat konversi ekosistem alamiah menjadi ekosistem budidaya untuk memproduksi makanan, bahan bakar, dan serat. Dalam konteks ini, biasanya manusia secara berlebihan mengeksploitasi ekosistem alam. Salah satu pendekatan yang dapat ditempuh untuk menjaga jasa-jasa ekosistem alamiah adalah pendekatan valuasi nilai pasar, dimana jasa ekosistem diberi label harga dan tersedia untuk dijual atau dibeli oleh para konsumennya. “Hal-hal yang ternyaman dan terindah dalam kehidupan manusia tersedia gratis di lingkungan alam. Tetapi kalau jasa-jasa ekosistem alam tersebut tidak diberi nilai dan harga, maka kita manusia tidak dapat memelihara lingkungan hidupnya sebagaimana diperlukannya untuk menjaga ketersediaan jasa-jasa penting tersebut. Jasa-jasa ekosistem biasanya merupakan jasa atau barang publik. Regulasi untuk jasa dan barang public seperti ini seringkali berada di luar kendali pemerintah; dan IPTEK di bidang valuasi jasa-jasa ekosistem ini masih belum memadai. Belum ada skema pembayaran (PES, Payments for Ecosystem Services) yang cocok untuk semua kasus di lapangan. Bahkan skema pembayaran yang salah dapat lebih buruk daripada tanpa pembayaran sama sekali, seperti pengalaman yang terjadi dalam kaitannya dengan subsidi pertanian. Subsidi pertanian ternyata telah memicu pemakaian pupuk dan pestisida secara berlebihan sehingga menciptakan banyak degradasi ekosistem alam.  Dalam suatu zona mati perairan, kehidupan hewan dan tumbuhan telah hilang akibat kekurangan oksigen terlarut dalam air, akibat pencemaran bahan organic ke dalam perairan. Masyrakat publik membayar beragam produk pertanian, perkebunan, perikanan dan kehutanan. Pasar yang mapan telah tersedia untuk produk-produk tersebut. Namun demikian kita juga memerlukan mekanisme pasar yang memberi imbalan bagi petani atas usaha perbaikan kualitas ekosistem pertaniannya, dan usaha-usaha pelestarian lingkungan lainnya. Usaha pelestarian lingkungan tersebut dapat berupa perlindungan daerah aliran sungai, pelestarian habitat, kontrol terhadap hama dan penyakit, serta bentuk-bentuk konservasi tanah dan air lainnya. Salah satu pengalaman menarik adalah sistem cap-and-trade versi awal di Amerika Serikat. Cap-and-trade merupakan sistem dimana korporasi diperbolehkan untuk membuang polutan hingga batas kuota tertentu. Korporasi juga boleh melakukan jual beli kuota polusi dengan lembaga lainnya. Pasar pertama untuk emisi sulfur dioksida runtuh akibat salah rancangan. Mereka tidak memperhitungkan bahwa polutan-polutan dapat saling berinteraksi di luar batas wilayah administrasi negara. Penelitian terbaru yang dilakukan oleh para ilmuwan di dunia mulai diarahkan pada skema Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES). PES ini memungkinkan pemerintah dan lembaga non-pemerintah untuk membayar barang dan jasa-jasa publik yang berkaitan dengan ekosistem dan lingkungan hidup. Sebagai contoh, biaya penyimpanan karbon (carbon sequestration) dibayar melalui skema Collaborative Program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD) dari PBB. Skema ini membayar negara-negara berkembang, termasuk Indonesia, untuk melestarikan hutannya. Dengan hutan lestari, diharapkan kepunahan biodiversitas dan emisi karbon dapat diminimumkan. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

27. VALUASI AMENITAS JASA EKOSISTEM Pemanfaatan dan eksploitasi sumberdaya alam dan ekosistemya yang tidak diimbangi oleh upaya konservasi yang memadai telah mengakibatkan beragam dampak negatif terhadap keberlangsungan ekosistem dan lingkungan hidup. Hal ini tidak hanya mengancam keberlangsungan ekosistem dan lingkungan alam, tetapi juga keberlangsungan hidup manusia. Isu pemanasan global dan perubahan iklim hanya merupakan sebagian dari beragam isu lingkungan yang sangat rumit dan pelik, baik yang bersekala lokal , nasional, maupun yang berdimensi global. Semakin meningkatnya kesadaran terhadap isu-isu degradasi lingkungan hidup telah mampu mendorong negara-negara di dunia untuk memikirkan upaya penyeimbangan laju pembangunan ekonomi dengan upaya konservasi ekosistem dan lingkungan alam. Kesadaran global ini telah melahirkan paradigma ekonomi yang memasukkan aspek lingkungan ke dalamnya, atau yang lebih dikenal sebagai ekonomi hijau. Kebanyakan negara dan pemangku kepentingan meyakini bahwa ekonomi hijau merupakan solusi bagi permasalahan degradasi lingkungan hidup dan diharapkan dapat membawa kehidupan dan peradaban global menjadi lebih baik, berkeadilan, sejahtera, dan berkesinambungan. EKONOMI HIJAU vs. EKONOMI HITAM ‘The Black economy’: pembangunan ekonomi yang bertumpu pd bahan bakar fosil seperti batubara, minyak bumi dan gas alam. “The green economy” bertumpu pd pengetahuan ekologi-ekonomi dengan tujuan menyelaraskan hubungan ekonomi-manusia dengan ekosistem- alam serta MINIMUM dampak negatif akibat kegiatan ekonomi terhadap lingkungan

28. VALUASI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN The provision of environmental amenities is an economic gain since it increases individual or social welfare. Their public good characteristics mandate public provision, so that rational policy making needs an informed assessment of the forthcoming benefits, commensurate with resource costs. It is widely accepted (by economists, at least) that willingness to pay (WTP), viz., compensating (CV) or equivalent (EV) variation, 1 or the consumer's surplus approximation, are the appropriate money metric measures. 2 Understandably, economists are inclined to derive these valuations under conditions where preferences are revealed through actual consumer behavior in real markets, but there has also been increased interest in monetized assessments gauged in hypothetical, or contingent markets. The paper reports on a comparative study of direct and indirect approaches to valuing environmental amenities (i.e., public goods), specifically, air quality in terms of its human health effects. The application of three indirect valuation methods (via market goods) is reported here: the health production method, a consumer preferences (for nonmarket goods) model, and the cost of illness method. The first and second methods are (economic) behavior-based approaches where willingness to pay for an environmental good is derived by exploiting relationships m consumption between the public good and market good(s). The third method is based on a physical relationship -- a dose-response function -- between the environmental good and health. The direct valuation approach encompassed three contingent valuation elicitation formats: open-ended, modified iterative bidding game, and referenda-style binary choice. The application of all four methods was based on data from a survey of a large, stratified sample of households from the Haifa metropolitan area in northern Israel. The estimates of welfare change derived by the various methods are discussed and compared. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

29. PEMODELAN KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN  Environmental amenity-driven migration presents a double-edged sword to policy makers concerned with both economic and ecological sustainability. Clearly the protection of environmental amenities is important, but what is the right balance between ecosystem protection and regional economic processes that simultaneously respond to and degrade ecological resources? We consider this question in the context of households that are attracted to a region by urban and lake amenities and a lake ecosystem that becomes degraded by land development. An analytical expression for the time evolution of population is derived from households' and firms' optimizing behaviors. Numerical methods with phase plane diagrams are used to study the steady state and transient dynamics of the resulting population-phosphorus coupled system. The system is found to be bi-stable under a range of parameter values with one attractor corresponding to a desired “balanced” economy-ecology state and the other to a very small population base with fully restored ecology. We examine the dynamics and quantify the resilience of the system in and away from the balanced steady state using phase plane diagrams that demarcate the two domains of attraction. Economic-ecological interactions fundamentally alter regional economic dynamics and influence the resilience of the balanced domain of attraction. For example, a one percent increase in the loadings coefficient associated with residential land development generates a three percent decline in the resilience of the balanced state. It is found that economic feedbacks often increase system resilience. Initial increases in the attraction of urban amenities spur greater population growth that increases the resilience of the balanced state. In addition, price feedbacks that arise from capitalized (dis)amenities increase the resilience of the system to bad ecological shocks. (Dynamic modeling of environmental amenity-driven migration with ecological feedbacks. Yong Chen, Elena G. Irwin, Ciriyam Jayaprakash. Ecological Economics. Volume 68, Issue 10, 15 August 2009, Pages 2498-2510).

30. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN: DESA WISATA Pengembangan kawasan pedesaan sebagai salah satu objek wisata patut ditindaklanjuti sejalan pergeseran pola pariwisata dewasa ini. World Tourism Organization, 1995 melaporkan perkembangan pariwisata alternatif yang dipandang menghargai lingkungan alam dan penghargaan kepada kebudayaan. Kenyataan ini telah memicu kesadaran akan pembangunan pariwisata yang berwawasan lingkungan yang merupakan alternative tourism. Model pariwisata ini mempertimbangkan pemanfaatan sumber daya yang berkelanjutan untuk generasi mendatang. Termasuk dalam pariwisata alternatif diantaranya green tourism; soft tourism; low impact tourism; eco-tourism; responsible tourism; appropriate tourism; sustainable tourism; dan lain-lain. Desa wisata merupakan bentuk desa yang memiliki ciri khusus di dalamnya, baik alam dan budaya, serta berpeluang dijadikan komoditi bagi wisatawan. Wujud desa wisata itu sendiri bahwa desa sebagai objek dan subyek pariwisata.  Sebagai objek, merupakan tujuan kegiatan pariwisata, sedangkan sebagai subyek adalah sebagai penyelenggara, apa yang dihasilkan oleh desa akan dinikmati oleh masyarakatnya secara langsung dan peran aktif masyarakat sangat menentukan kelangsungan desa wisata itu sendiri (Soebagyo, 1991). Dalam kegiatannya, seringkali wisatawan tinggal di dalam atau dekat dengan suasana tradisional dan belajar tentang kehidupan desa dan lingkungan setempat. Dalam hal ini, ada proses belajar (learning) dari masyarakat (hosts) kepada wisatawan (guests), sehingga para tamu mampu memberikan penghargaan (rewarding) kepada nilai-nilai lokal yang masih dianut oleh komunitas setempat. Desa wisata berbeda dengan wisata desa (Ahimsa-Putra, 2000).  Desa wisata adalah kawasan pemukiman yang ada di daerah pedesaan, baik secara sengaja ataupun tidak, telah menjadi sebuah kawasan yang menjadi tujuan kunjungan wisatawan karena daya tarik/objek wisata yang ada, dan di desa ini wisatawan dapat menginap. Sedangkan wisata desa yang hanya kunjungan yang berlangsung di daerah pedesaan, namun tidak menginap di daerah tujuan tersebut. Wisatawan tetap tinggal di hotel, di kota sebab masih minimnya fasilitas untuk wisatawan di pedesaan. Persoalan “menginap di desa” inilah yang menjadikan adanya perbedaan antara wisata desa dengan desa wisata.  Strategi melibatkan peran serta masyarakat dapat dilakukan antara lain dengan: Menginformasikan kepada penduduk setempat tentang apa yang akan terjadi bila pariwisata pedesaan masuk ke desa mereka; Menjaga dialog dengan dan di antara mereka; Menghargai pendapat dan melibatkan masyarakat setempat dalam pengambilan keputusan; Meningkatkan pemahaman akan hakekat pariwisata dan dampaknya; Mendorong hubungan antar wisatawan dan penduduk setempat; Melindungi masyarakat lokal dari melimpahnya kegiatan pariwisata (Ahimsa-putra, dkk, 2000).  Prinsip penting lainnya yang patut diperhatikan dalam pengembangan desa wisata; Mengembangkan fasilitas-fasilitas wisata dalam skala kecil beserta pelayanannya yang dekat atau di dalam desa itu sendiri, Fasilitas dan pelayanan tersebut dimiliki dan dikerjakan oleh penduduk, secara individu atau bekerjasama, Pengembangan yang didasarkan kepada sifat budaya tradisional suatu desa (human life) atau sifat atraksi yang dekat dengan alam (nature based). Produk pariwisata pedesaan mencakup tiga aspek yang dikenal dengan istilah triple A (Atraksi, Amenitas dan Aksesibilitas). Produk pariwisata dapat diartikan sebagai segala sesuatu yang dapat “dijual” sebagai komoditas pariwisata. Atraksi adalah objek/daya tarik wisata yakni objek yang memiliki daya tarik untuk dilihat, ditonton, dinikmati yang layak “dijual” ke pasar wisata.  Secara sederhana produk desa wisata adalah segala macam objek bergerak maupun tidak bergerak yang memiliki daya tarik wisata dan layak ditawarkan, “dijual” kepada wisatawan, baik wisatawan domestik ataupun mancanegara. Objek pariwisata pedesaan beserta segala atraksi yang diperlihatkan merupakan daya tarik utama bagi seseorang untuk berkunjung ke suatu tempat. Untuk itu keaslian dari objek dan atraksi yang disuguhkan tetap harus dipertahankan. Di samping keaslian yang tetap dipertahankan juga perlu dipikirkan variasi objek dan atraksi yang hendak dijual. Di sinilah pentingnya pengembangan produk dibidang pariwisata. Logikanya, keberhasilan pengembangan produk yang dilakukan akan berakibat meningkatnya kunjungan wisatawan yang berimbas pada lama tinggal dan besarnya pengeluaran bagi wisatawan. Atraksi wisata pedesaan dapat dibedakan dalam dua bentuk, yakni atraksi yang dapat dinikmati atau dicerap panca indra (tangible/material) dan atraksi yang tidak dapat dilihat secara kasat mata (inmaterial/intangible). Dua bentuk ini sebetulnya dapat dikemas secara bersama ataupun berbeda. Contoh atraksi wisata yang dapat dilihat secara konkrit adalah pertunjukan tari, menikmati masakan lokal, melihat bangunan-bangunan khas desa (arsitektur), mengikuti kegiatan bertani di sawah atau mengambil salak di kebun, memetik daun teh dan memprosesnya menjadi teh siap saji yang dapat dilakukan secara mandiri. Serta beberapa contoh atraksi material lainnya yang dapat dilakukan para tamu secara sukarela. Sedangkan untuk atraksi yang intangible, atau atraksi yang tidak dapat dicerap panca indera antara lain adalah menyimak penuturan seorang sesepuh desa yang menceritakan masa lalu sebuah desa, atau mendengarkan cerita (mitologi) dari keberadaan/asal-muasal yang berkembang di wilayah tertentu. Melalui kegiatan mendengar serta melakukan proses membayangkan (berimajinasi) maka tamu akan mendapatkan sesuatu yang dapat mengisi kekosongan atas sebuah informasi tertentu yang dapat diperolehnya selama melakukan kegiatan wisata di desa. Di samping atraksi, yang termasuk dalam produk wisata lainnya adalah amenitas yakni segala macam fasilitas yang menunjang kegiatan pariwisata. Dalam kaitannya dengan kegiatan wisata pedesaan sarana amenitas yang diperlukan wisatawan tidak perlu seperti yang terdapat diperkotaan. Bukan sebuah hotel berbintang yang dicari namun justru kesederhanaan seperti hakekat kegiatan wisata pedesaan yakni mengajak tamu untuk live in (tinggal bersama) di sebuah rumah tangga pedesaan. Dengan tinggal bersama maka para tamu dapat melihat dan mengikuti serta melakukan segenap kegiatan seperti halnya empunya rumah sesuai keinginan para tamu yang tentu saja mengikuti sopan santun. Meski demikian beberapa bangunan seperti halnya akomodasi /home stay untuk tempat menginap dapat memanfaatkan bahan lokal ataupun merehab sebagian dari ruangan dengan tanpa membangun baru dari bahan yang mencerminkan ciri kekotaan. Keberadaan beberapa rumah khas di pedesaan Jawa, seperti joglo, sinom ataupun limas dapat direnovasi dan digunakan untuk sarana menginap para tamu. Adanya bangunan dan ruang-ruang dalam sebuah rumah khas Jawa juga menarik untuk menjadi cerita tersendiri bagi wisatawan. Mereka dapat memilih tidur pada bagian tertentu dari bangunan sehingga dapat merasakan suasana berada di sebuah rumah berarsitektur Jawa. Dari ketiga aspek produk wisata di atas, model pengembangan produk haruslah mempertahankan keasliannya agar dapat bersaing dengan daerah lainnya. Dengan kata lain, masing-masing objek harus memiliki style tersendiri yang berbeda dengan objek wisata lainnya. Style merupakan faktor penting dalam menentukan penjualan. Dalam pariwisata yang dikatakan sebagai product style yang baik adalah daya tarik objek itu sendiri, memiliki perbedaan dengan objek lainnya, dukungan kondisi prasarana yang terpelihara dengan baik, ketersediaan fasilitas “something to see, something to do, & something to buy, dan  dilengkapi dengan sarana prasarana lainnya. Keberhasilan pengembangan kawasan desa wisata pada sebuah lokasi, selain keberadaan atraksi wisata sebagai produk yang menjadi faktor penarik (pull factors) konsumen untuk mendatangi objek tersebut, juga tidak kalah pentingnya adalah peran dan keberadaan elemen kelembagaan dan sumber daya manusia di dalamnya. Kelembagaan yang terbentuk hendaknya memiliki kompetensi dalam pengelolaan dan pengembangan kepariwisataan. Ada beberapa aspek yang perlu diperhatikan berkenaan dengan daya tarik dari suatu objek wisata. Aspek-aspek ini merupakan sisi-sisi dari suatu objek yang membuatnya dikatakan menarik. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: (1)  Keunikan Suatu objek wisata biasanya menjadi menarik antara lain karena keunikannya, kekhasannya, keanehannya. Artinya objek ini sulit didapatkan kesamaannya atau tidak ada dalam masyarakat-masyarakat yang lain. Aspek keunikan ini seringkali terkait dengan sejarah dari objek itu sendiri, baik itu sejarah dalam arti yang sebenarnya maupun sejarah dalam arti yang lebih mitologis. Oleh karena itu dalam mengidentifikasi objek-objek wisata aspek keunikan ini perlu diperhatikan, karena ini dapat menjadi daya tarik yang kuat bagi wisatawan. (2)  Estetika Aspek lain yang perlu diperhatikan adalah aspek keindahan, dan ini merupakan unsur yang paling penting dari suatu objek wisata untuk dapat menarik wisatawan. Aspek keindahan ini sangat perlu diperhatikan dalam proses pengembangan suatu objek wisata. Suatu objek yang tidak unik dapat saja menarik banyak wisatawan karena keindahan yang dimilikinya. Bilamana keindahan ini menjadi sangat menonjol, maka keindahan tersebut kemudian menyatu dengan keunikan, dan membuat objek tersebut semakin menarik. (3)  Keagamaan Suatu objek wisata bisa saja tidak unik, tidak menarik, namun mempunyai nilai keagamaan yang tinggi. Artinya, objek tersebut dipercaya sebagai objek yang bersifat suci, wingit, atau mempunyai kekuatan supernatural tertentu, yang dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan manusia. Aspek keagamaan ini perlu diperhatikan ketika identifikasi dan promosi dilakukan, karena wisatawan tertentu seringkali tertarik oleh hal-hal semacam ini. (4)  Ilmiah. Suatu objek wisata juga dapat menarik banyak wisatawan karena nilai ilmiah atau nilai pengetahuan yang tinggi, yang dimilikinya, walaupun unsur unik, estetis, dan keagamaannya kurang. Namun demikian, nilai ilmiah yang tinggi dari objek wisata tersebut pada dasarnya juga merupakan bagian dari keunikannya. Aspek ilmiah ini juga perlu diperhatikan dalam proses identifikasi, pengembangan dan promosi objek wisata tersebut, karena ini merupakan salah satu potensi yang dapat dimanfaatkan untuk menarik lebih banyak wisatawan. Daya tarik objek wisata akan semakin kuat KALAU berbagai elemen penarik tersebut hadir bersama-sama. Jika tidak, maka dalam proses pengembangan dan promosi elemen-elemen yang masih kurang menonjol hendaknya diperkuat lagi agar objek tersebut mampu menarik wisatawan lebih banyak lagi. (Sumber: Identifikasi Potensi Kawasan Pedesaan Sebagai Kawasan Wisata. Januari 23, 2009 oleh jttcugm . PELATIHAN JTTC UGM Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

31. KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN THERMAL Pada makalah ini disampaikan salah satu hasil penelitian kenyamanan adaptif pada bangunan rumah tinggal berventilasi alami yang ada di Indonesia, dengan lokasi Bandung, Semarang, dan Bekasi, dengan mengikuti prosedur penelitian Standar Kenyamanan Adaptif ASHRAE 55. Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan bahwa hasil kenyamanan adaptif responden (kenetralan kondisi termal dan preferensi kondisi termal) berada pada temperatur operatif Top yang lebih tinggi dari perkiraan model kenyamanan statik ASHRAE 55 dan ISO 7730, yakni PMV-PPD, dan juga model statik lainnya seperti ET*, SET*, DISC, TSENS, dan HSI. Hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa kondisi kenetralan selalu lebih tinggi dari kondisi preferensi, berarti terdapat harga selisih yang positif, yang berarti responden menginginkan kondisi yang lebih dingin dari kondisi netral. Dengan demikian kondisi yang lebih sesuai untuk menyatakan kenyamanan termal responden adalah kondisi preferensi kondisi termal. Rentang temperatur yang dapat diterima adalah Top = 22,8 – 30,2 oC dan ET* = 23,4 – 32,3 oC. Hasil ini sesuai dengan perkiraan kenyamanan rentang nyaman 80% menurut model adaptif ASHRAE 55. (MENUJU PENYUSUNAN DAN PENERAPAN STANDAR KENYAMANAN TERMAL ADAPTIF DI INDONESIA. Oleh: Wahyu Sujatmiko, Wisnu Hendradjit dan Soegijanto. 2007.).. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

32. MENGUKUR NILAI KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN In consensual market transactions, there is no reason for government officials to appraise the relative value of the goods exchanged, since the consenting parties regard themselves as gaining from it. Each party to the agreement prefers it to any alternatives and thereby has maximized value and minimized costs.Where government contemplates filling an asserted need for collective goods, however, it must ascertain the aggregate demand for that good. The problem of ascertaining values in welfare economics is vexing. Law and economics scholars Louis Kaplow and Steven Shavell recently argued that legal rules should be based ex-clusively on considerations of well-being: The notion of well-being used in welfare economics . . . incorporates in a positive way everything that an individual might value—goods and services that the indi-vidual can consume, social and environmental amenities, personally held notions of fulfillment, sympathetic feelings for others, and so forth. . . . The only limit on what is included in well-being is to be found in the minds of individuals them-selves, not in the minds of analysts. (LOUIS KAPLOW & STEVEN SHAVELL, FAIRNESS VERSUS WELFARE 18-19 (2002). Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

33. . Berdasarkan Ditjen Bina Marga DPU (2005), terdapat 3 isue utama terkait dengan ketersediaan dan kelestarian RTH di wilayah perkotaan, yaitu: • 1) Dampak negatif dari suboptimalisasi RTH dimana RTH kota tersebut tidak memenuhi persyaratan jumlah dan kualitas (RTH tidak tersedia, RTH tidak fungsional, fragmentasi lahan yang menurunkan kapasitas lahan dan selanjutnya menurunkan kapasitas lingkungan, alih guna dan fungsi lahan) terjadi terutama dalam bentuk/kejadian: • a. Menurunkan kenyamanan kota, seperti penurunan kapasitas dan daya dukung wilayah (pencemaran meningkat, ketersediaan air tanah menurun, suhu kota meningkat, dll). • b. Menurunkan keamanan kota. • c. Menurunkan keindahan alami kota (natural amenities) dan artifak alami sejarah yang bernilai kultural tinggi. • d. Menurunkan tingkat kesejahteraan masyarakat (menurunnya kesehatan masyarakat secara fisik dan psikis). • 2) Lemahnya lembaga pengelola RTH • a. Belum terdapatnya aturan hukum dan perundangan yang tepat. • b. Belum optimalnya penegakan aturan main pengelolaan RTH. • c. Belum jelasnya bentuk kelembagaan pengelola RTH. • d. Belum terdapatnya tata kerja pengelolaan RTH yang jelas. • 3) Lemahnya peran stake holders • a. Lemahnya persepsi masyarakat. • 204 • b. Lemahnya pengertian masyarakat dan pemerintah. • c. Perilaku masyarakat yang kurang mendukung. • d. Keterbatasan lahan kota untuk peruntukan RTH. • e. Belum optimalnya pemanfaatan lahan terbuka yang ada di kota untuk RTH fungsional, dan sebagainya. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

34. . Vegetasi dalam ekosistem berperan sebagai produsen pertama yang mengubah energi surya menjadi energi potensial untuk makhluk lainnya, perubah terbesar lingkungan dan sebagai sumber hara mineral. Setiap ada pembangunan di kota, lahan pertanian, kebun buah-buahan atau lahan bervegetasi menjadi berkurang. Penghijauan perkotaan merupakan salah satu usaha pengisian Ruang Terbuka Hijau (RTH), perlu ditingkatkan bentuk dan strukturnya menjadi hutan kota. Pertimbangannya berdasarkan potensi alam Indonesia yang memiliki keanekaragaman hayati tinggi dengan iklim tropis, masyarakatnya mempunyai kebiasaan menanam, adanya kesadaran masyarakat serta rencana pemerintah. Hutan kota adalah kominitas vegetasi berupa pohon dan asosiasinya yang tumbuh di lahan kota atau sekitar kota, berbentuk jalur, menyebar, atau bergerombol (menumpuk) dengan struktur meniru (menyerupai) hutan alam, membentuk habitat yang memungkinkan kehidupan bagi satwa dan menimbulkan lingkungan sehat, nyaman, dan estetis. Hutan kota sebagai unsur RTH merupakan subsistem kota, sebuah ekosistem dengan sistem terbuka. Hutan kota diharapkan dapat menanggulangi masalah lingkungan di perkotaan, menyerap hasil negatif yang disebabkan karena aktivitas kota. Aktivitas kota dipicu oleh pertumbuhan penduduk kota, sedangkan pertumbuhan penduduk kota selalu meningkat setiap tahun. Hasil negatif kota antara lain meningkatnya suhu udara, kebisingan, debu, polutan, menurunnya kelembaban, dan hilangnya habitat berbagai jenis burung karena hilangnya berbagai vegetasi dan 214 RTH. Dalam hal ini diharapkan hutan kota dapat menyerap panas, meredam suara bising di kota, mengurangi debu, memberikan estetika, membentuk habitat untuk bernagai jenis burung atau satwa lainnya. Di bawah ini disajikan data-data tentang kondisi lingkungan di Jakarta. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

35. . Is Farmland a Natural Amenity in the US? Several researchers have studied the role of farmland as amenity provider in rural and urban periphery settings. Results range from negative impacts (Palmquist et al. 1997; Ready and Abdalla 2005) to positive perceptions of farmland (Irwin 2002). The difference between these contradictory results is based mainly on the kinds of attributes that agriculture can provide for particular regions. On the disamenity side of agriculture, it is possible to affirm that people dislike farmland when: - as field size increases, perennial fences vanish - winter soil is left empty or with residuals from last exploitation - odor spreads, specially in livestock farms (animal density is an important factor) - noise and pollution is produced by farm machinery - landscape becomes homogeneous, such as the case when land presents high concentration of row crops (corn, wheat, etc.) - soil erosion problems concatenate more dust and arid landscapes - other nonfarm rural lands are abundant On the opposite side, Irwin et al. (2003) argue that farmland can become a positive amenity for people in particular regions. It is possible to argue that demand for farmland amenities increases when: - agricultural land, and open space in general, become scarce - household income levels are high - population has high educational attainment - population density increases (especially near the rural-urban fringe) - there is diversification in production (mix of trees, crops, etc.) - agriculture replaces formerly undesired spaces - there is more supply of fresh products in areas where they have historically been lacking Therefore, in contrast to the European case, farmland in the US often is not related to amenities for dwellings of particular regions. This generally happens when agriculture is abundant and intensive so that WTP for farm land decreases relative to WTP for more developed land or urban-related amenities (Bergstrom and Ready 2009). Bergstrom, J., and Ready, R. (2009) What have we learned from over 20 years of farmland amenity valuation research in North America? Review of Agricultural Economics 31(3), 21-49. Irwin, E. (2002) The effects of open space on residential property values. Land Economics 78(4):465-480. Irwin, E., Nickerson, C., and Libby, L. (2003) What are farmland amenities worth? Choices (Third Quarter), 21–3. Palmquist, R., Roka, F., and Tomislav, V. (1997) Hog operations, environmental effects, and residential property values. Land Economics 73(1), 114-124. Ready, R. and Abdalla, C. (2005) The amenity and disamenity impacts of agriculture: Estimates from a hedonic pricing model. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 2(5), 314-326. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

36. Definisi dan Pengertian RTH . Ruang Terbuka Hijau (RTH) kota adalah bagian dari ruang-ruang terbuka (open spaces) suatu wilayah perkotaan yang diisi oleh tumbuhan, tanaman, dan vegetasi (endemik, introduksi) guna mendukung manfaat langsung dan/atau tidak langsung yang dihasilkan oleh RTH dalam kota tersebut yaitu keamanan, kenyamanan, kesejahteraan, dan keindahan wilayah perkotaan tersebut. Berdasarkan bobot kealamiannya, bentuk RTH dapat diklasifikasi menjadi (a) bentuk RTH alami (habitat liar/alami, kawasan lindung) dan (b) bentuk RTH non alami atau RTH binaan (pertanian kota, pertamanan kota, lapangan olah raga, pemakaman. Berdasarkan sifat dan karakter ekologisnya diklasi-fikasi menjadi (a) bentuk RTH kawasan (areal, non linear), dan (b) bentuk RTH jalur (koridor, linear). Berdasarkan penggunaan lahan atau kawasan fungsionalnya diklasifikasi menjadi (a) RTH kawasan perdagangan, (b) RTH kawasan perindustrian, (c) RTH kawasan permukiman, (d) RTH kawasan per-tanian, dan (e) RTH kawasan-kawasan khusus, seperti pemakaman, hankam, olah raga, alamiah. Status kepemilikan RTH diklasifikasikan menjadi (a) RTH publik, yaitu RTH yang berlokasi pada lahan-lahan publik atau lahan yang dimiliki oleh peme-rintah (pusat, daerah), dan (b) RTH privat atau non publik, yaitu RTH yang berlokasi pada lahan-lahan milik privat. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

37. . Fungsi dan Manfaat RTH RTH, baik RTH publik maupun RTH privat, memiliki fungsi utama (intrinsik) yaitu fungsi ekologis, dan fungsi tambahan (ekstrinsik) yaitu fungsi arsitek-tural, sosial, dan fungsi ekonomi. Dalam suatu wilayah perkotaan empat fungsi utama ini dapat dikombinasikan sesuai dengan kebutuhan, kepenting-an, dan keberlanjutan kota. RTH berfungsi ekologis, yang menjamin keberlanjutan suatu wilayah kota secara fisik, harus merupakan satu bentuk RTH yang berlokasi, berukuran, dan berbentuk pasti dalam suatu wilayah kota, seperti RTH untuk per-lindungan sumberdaya penyangga kehidupan manusia dan untuk membangun jejaring habitat hidupan liar. RTH untuk fungsi-fungsi lainnya (sosial, ekonomi, arsitektural) merupakan RTH pendukung dan penambah nilai kualitas lingkungan dan budaya kota tersebut, sehingga dapat berlokasi dan berbentuk sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan kepentingannya, seperti untuk ke-indahan, rekreasi, dan pendukung arsitektur kota. Manfaat RTH berdasarkan fungsinya dibagi atas manfaat langsung (dalam pengertian cepat dan bersifat tangible) seperti mendapatkan bahan-bahan untuk dijual (kayu, daun, bunga), kenyamanan fisik (teduh, segar), keingin-an dan manfaat tidak langsung (berjangka panjang dan bersifat intangible) seperti perlindungan tata air dan konservasi hayati atau keanekaragaman hayati. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

38. POLA DAN STRUKTUR FUNGSIONAL RTH Pola RTH kota merupakan struktur RTH yang ditentukan oleh hubungan fungsional (ekologis, sosial, ekonomi, arsitektural) antar komponen pemben-tuknya. Pola RTH terdiri dari (a) RTH struktural, dan (b) RTH non struktural. RTH struktural merupakan pola RTH yang dibangun oleh hubungan fungsi-onal antar komponen pembentuknya yang mempunyai pola hierarki plano-logis yang bersifat antroposentris. RTH tipe ini didominasi oleh fungsi-fungsi non ekologis dengan struktur RTH binaan yang berhierarkhi. Contohnya adalah struktur RTH berdasarkan fungsi sosial dalam melayani kebutuhan rekreasi luar ruang (outdoor recreation) penduduk perkotaan seperti yang diperlihatkan dalam urutan hierakial sistem pertamanan kota (urban park system) yang dimulai dari taman perumahan, taman lingkungan, taman ke-camatan, taman kota, taman regional, dst). RTH non struktural merupakan pola RTH yang dibangun oleh hubungan fungsional antar komponen pem-bentuknya yang umumnya tidak mengikuti pola hierarki planologis karena bersifat ekosentris. RTH tipe ini memiliki fungsi ekologis yang sangat dominan dengan struktur RTH alami yang tidak berhierarki. Contohnya adalah struktur RTH yang dibentuk oleh konfigurasi ekologis bentang alam perkotaan tersebut, seperti RTH kawasan lindung, RTH perbukitan yang terjal, RTH sempadan sungai, RTH sempadan danau, RTH pesisir. Untuk suatu wilayah perkotaan, maka pola RTH kota tersebut dapat dibangun dengan mengintegrasikan dua pola RTH ini berdasarkan bobot tertinggi pada kerawanan ekologis kota (tipologi alamiah kota: kota lembah, kota pegunungan, kota pantai, kota pulau, dll) sehingga dihasilkan suatu pola RTH struktural.

39. Elemen Pengisi RTH RTH dibangundarikumpulantumbuhandantanamanatauvegetasi yang telahdiseleksidandisesuaikandenganlokasisertarencanadanrancanganperuntukkannya. Lokasiyang berbeda (sepertipesisir, pusatkota, kawasanindustri, sempadanbadan-badan air, dll) akanmemilikipermasalahan yang jugaberbeda yang selanjutnyaberkonsekuensipadarencanadanrancangan RTH yang berbeda. Untukkeberhasilanrancangan, penanamandankelestariannyamakasifatdancirisertakriteria (a) arsitekturaldan (b) hortikulturaltanamandanvegetasipenyusun RTH harusmenjadibahanpertimbangandalam men-seleksijenis-jenis yang akanditanam. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

40. SYARAT TANAMAN RTH Persyaratanumumtanamanuntukditanamdiwilayahperkotaan: Disenangidantidakberbahayabagiwargakota Mamputumbuhpadalingkungan yang marjinal (tanahtidaksubur, udaradan air yang tercemar) Tahan terhadap gangguan fisik (vandalisme) Perakarandalamsehinggatidakmudahtumbang Tidakgugurdaun, cepattumbuh, bernilaihiasdanarsitektural Dapat menghasilkan O2 dan meningkatkan kualitas lingkungan kota Bibit/benihmudahdidapatkandenganharga yang murah/terjangkauolehmasyarakat Prioritasmenggunakanvegetasiendemik/lokal Keanekaragamanhayati Jenistanamanendemikataujenistanamanlokal yang memilikikeunggulantertentu (ekologis, sosialbudaya, ekonomi, arsitektural) dalamwilayahkotatersebutmenjadibahantanamanutamapenciri RTH kotatersebut, yang selanjutnyaakandikembangkangunamempertahankankeanekaragamanhayatiwilayahnyadanjuganasional. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

41. Teknis Perencanaan RTH • Dalam rencana pembangunan dan pengembangan RTH yang fungsional suatu wilayah perkotaan, ada 4 (empat) hal utama yang harus diperhatikan yaitu • (a) Luas RTH minimum yang diperlukan dalam suatu wilayah perkotaan di-tentukan secara komposit oleh tiga komponen berikut ini, yaitu: • 1) Kapasitas atau daya dukung alami wilayah • 2) Kebutuhan per kapita (kenyamanan, kesehatan, dan bentuk pela-yanan lainnya) • 3) Arah dan tujuan pembangunan kota • RTH berluas minimum merupakan RTH berfungsi ekologis yang ber-lokasi, berukuran, dan berbentuk pasti, yang melingkup RTH publik dan • RTH privat. Dalam suatu wilayah perkotaan maka RTH publik harus berukuran sama atau lebih luas dari RTH luas minimal, dan RTH privat merupakan RTH pendukung dan penambah nilai rasio terutama dalam meningkatkan nilai dan kualitas lingkungan dan kultural kota. • (b) Lokasi lahan kota yang potensial dan tersedia untuk RTH • (c) Sruktur dan pola RTH yang akan dikembangkan (bentuk, konfigurasi, • dan distribusi) • (d) Seleksi tanaman sesuai kepentingan dan tujuan pembangunan kota. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

42. KENDALA PENGEMBANGAN RTH • Tiga issues utama dari ketersediaan dan kelestarian RTH adalah • (1) Dampak negatif dari suboptimalisasi RTH dimana RTH kota tersebut tidak memenuhi persyaratan jumlah dan kualitas (RTH tidak tersedia, RTH tidak fungsional, fragmentasi lahan yang menurunkan kapasitas lahan dan selan-jutnya menurunkan kapasitas lingkungan, alih guna dan fungsi lahan) terjadi terutama dalam bentuk/kejadian: • 􀂃 Menurunkan kenyamanan kota: penurunan kapasitas dan daya dukung wilayah (pencemaran meningkat, ketersediaan air tanah menurun, suhu kota meningkat, dll) • 􀂃 Menurunkan keamanan kota • 􀂃 Menurunkan keindahan alami kota (natural amenities) dan artifak alami sejarah yang bernilai kultural tinggi • 􀂃 Menurunkan tingkat kesejahteraan masyarakat (menurunnya kesehatan masyarakat secara fisik dn psikis) • (2) Lemahnya lembaga pengelola RTH • 􀂃 Belum terdapatnya aturan hukum dan perundangan yang tepat • 􀂃 Belum optimalnya penegakan aturan main pengelolaan RTH • 􀂃 Belum jelasnya bentuk kelembagaan pengelola RTH • 􀂃 Belum terdapatnya tata kerja pengelolaan RTH yang jelas • (3) Lemahnya peran stake holders • 􀂃 Lemahnya persepsi masyarakat • 􀂃 Lemahnya pengertian masyarakat dan pemerintah • (4) Keterbatasan lahan kota untuk peruntukan RTH • 􀂃 Belum optimalnya pemanfaatan lahan terbuka yang ada di kota untuk RTH fungsional Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012

43. MODEL PENGELOLAAN RTH KOTA Sumber: Makalah Lokakarya PENGEMBANGAN SISTEM RTH DI PERKOTAAN . Dalam rangkaian acara Hari Bakti Pekerjaan Umum ke 60 Direktorat Jenderal Penataan Ruang Departemen Pekerjaan Umum. RUANG TERBUKA HIJAU (RTH) WILAYAH PERKOTAAN . Lab. Perencanaan Lanskap Departemen Arsitektur Lanskap . Fakultas Pertanian – IPB

44. VEGETASI RTH – KENYAMANAN LINGKUNGAN . Sifatalamijenistanamandalam RTH akanmampumemperbaikikualitaslingkungan, sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai acuan dalam memilih jenis tanaman pengisi RTH dari berbagaifungsi. Beberapafungsitanamandikemukakansebagaiberikut (Purnomohadi 1994). Dedaunanberairdapatmeredamsuara, Daun yang tebaldapatmenghalangisuaradan daun tipis mengurangisuara, Cabang-cabang tanaman yang bergerak dan bergetar dapat menurunkan suhu udara dan meningkatkankelembabanudara, Trikomadaundapatmenyerapbutir-butirdebu, melaluigerakanelektrostatikdanelektromagnetik, Pertukaran gas dapatterjadipadamulutdaun, Aroma bungadandaundapatmengurangibau, Ranting pohon beserta dedaunannya dapat menahan angin dan curah hujan, Penyebaran akar dapat mengikat tanah dan bahayaerosi, Cabang yang melilitdanberduridapatmenghalangigangguanmanusia, Bentuk dan tekstur daun berpengaruh terhadapdayaserapsinatatauhujandandayaikatcemaran, Bentukkanopitajukpohonberpengaruhterhadaparusdanarahanginturbulensilokaldanperedamanbunyi. Sumber: Purnomohadi. 1994. Kajian taman Simpang Lima dan taman Menteri Supeno di Kota Semarang ditinjau dari fungsi fi sik, estetik, dan sosial budaya, Jurnal Teknosains. Vol. 16A (1): 115-125.

45. . Indeks kenyamanan (IK) dapat ditentukan dari hasil pengukuran temperatur dan kelembaban udara pada setiap lokasi penelitian, menggunakan rumus Nievwolt (1998) berikut: IK = 0,8 T + (RH x T) / 500 Keterangan: IK = Indeks Kenyamanan; T = temperatur udara (oC); RH = kelembaban udara (%) Angka 500 dan 0,8 merupakan nilai konstanta. Indeks Kenyamanan menurut Nieuwolt (1998) Sumber: Nieuwolt S & McGregor GR. 1998. Tropical Climatology: An Introduction to the Climates of The Low Altitude. 2nd Edition. Chichester England: John Willey and Sons.

46. KOMPOSISI VEGETASI RTH Komposisi jenis vegetasi (V), ditentukan dengan cara menghitung banyaknya jenis vegetasi (pohon perindang) persatuan luas, menggunakan rumus: V = n/N x 100 % Keterangan: n = jumlah jenis pohon perindang persatuan luas N= total jumlah pohon perindang persatuan luas Kerapatan pohon (Kv), ditentukan dengan menghitung banyaknya pohon perindang persatuan luas areal di masing-masing lokasi penelitian. Nilai kerapatan pohon menggunakan rumus: V = n / L Keterangan: n = jumlah pohon perindang pada luasan tertentu L= luasan area Indeks Kerapatan vegetasi Sumber: Irwan 2005. Tantangan Lingkungan dan Landscape Hutan Kota. Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara. Jakarta.

47. KOMPOSISI VEGETASI RTH Sebaran vegetasi (Sv), ditentukan dengan cara menjumlahkan nilai dari persentase komposisi jenis vegetasi dan kerapatan vegetasi, dengan rumus: Sv = (V + Kv) x 100 % Indeks sebaran vegetasi Sumber: Irwan 2005. Tantangan Lingkungan dan Landscape Hutan Kota. Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara. Jakarta.

48. IKLIM MIKRO RTH . Kondisi iklim mikro Temperatur pagi (Tp), siang (Ts) dan sore hari (Tsr) diukur menggunakan termometer suhu pada beberapa lokasi pengamatan di kawasan industri, jalan, permukiman, dan kawasan perdagangan. Temperatur optimum(ideal) ditentukan dari hasil pengukuran temperatur pagi (Tp) dan siang hari (Ts) dengan menggunakan rumus Thom (dalam Kusmir et al., 2005): TI = 0,2 (Ts + Tp) + 15. Keterangan : Ts = temperatur pada siang hari oC Tp = temperatur pada pagi hari oC Tmax = temperatur maksimum oC Tmin = temperatur minimum oC Indeks Temperatur Udara Sumber: Kusmir Y, Robinson WA, Chang P & Robertson AW. 2005. The Physical Basis for Predicting Atlantic Sector Seasonal to Interannual Climate Variability. Journal of Climate 5949-5970

49. KELEMBABAN IDEL RTH Kelembaban ideal (RHi) ditentukan dari pengukuran temperatur siang hari (Ts) dan temperatur ideal (TI) dari hasil analisis menggunakan persamaan sebagai berikut: Rhi = (ed2 / ea2) x 100% Keterangan Rhi = Kelembaban relatif yang diharapkan terhadap keadaan iklim ea2 = jumlah maksimum uap air yang dikandung pada Tsiang. ed2 = jumlah uap air di udara (kapasitas udara menampung uap air) Indeks Kelembaban Udara Sumber: Lakitan. 2002. Dasar-Dasar Klimatologi. Jakarta: Raja Grafi ndo Persada.

50. TANAMAN LANDSKAP Jenisdankarakteristiktanaman yang banyakdigunakandalamdesainlangskap (Rustam Hakim danHardiUtomo, Sumber: http://anisavitri.wordpress.com), antara lain ; Cemaragunung ( Cemarajunghuniana ), D/T = 6/20 m, bentuktajuksegitiga, ditanamsepanjangtepijalanraya. Bambuhalus ( Arundinaria japonica ), D/T = 1,5/ 6 m, bentuktajukrumpun, ditanamditepijalankeluarkendaraan, atau area parkir. Cemaragembel ( Cupressuspapuana ), D/T = 2,5 /5 m, bentuktajuksegitiga, ditanamdi area parkir. Tanjung ( Mimusopselengi ), D/T = 8/8 m, bentuktajuksegitiga, bentuktajukbebas, ditanamditepijalandan area parkir. Cemaratiang ( Cupressussempervirens ), D/T = 2,5/5 m, bentuktajuksegitiga, ditanamdijalansekunder. Cemarasusun ( Araucaria exelsa ), D/T = 10/30 m, bentuktajuksegitiga, ditanamditepijalansekunder, pembentukruang. Kenari ( Canariumcomune ), D/T = 6/22 m, bentuktajukbebas, ditanamditepijalanraya. Bungasaputangan ( Maniltoagemipara ), D/T = 6/15 m, bentuktajukkubah, ditanamuntukidentitaslokasiataupeneduh. Rasamala ( Allengaexelsa ), D/T = 8/20, bentuktajukbebas, ditanamsebagaipeneduhataupencegaherosi. Sumber: ….. Diunduh 2/4/2012