Sports History

1. Sports History Presented by Geoff Trebiani & Mary Kate Serratore

2. Definition& Description • Sports history is a social science with its roots in the parent fields of history and sports studies. • Relatively new academic discipline that was formally recognized in 1973 with the establishment of the North American Society for Sport History ( NASSH) • Sports history today examines sports from educational, professional, and leisure pastime perspectives

3. Definition & Description • Sports history also investigates the social, religious, political, and economic effects of sport. • Examines gender, class, ethnicity, and race in various sports settings. • Assesses how modernity has reshaped sports because of industrialization, technology, and urbanization

4. Scope and Description • Almost all sports have their roots in Europe. • The history of sports in America is about how sports came here from other countries as well as how these sports grew and developed. • American sports historians study the organization and administration of athletic programs from community recreation to school and collegiate levels to professional leagues.

5. Ancient History • Prehistoric to Fourth Century B.C • History of sports begins with the funeral games of ancient times. • Greek games • The early Greeks practiced track and field; wrestling; boxing; chariot racing, the precursor to horse racing and modern auto racing and pankration, the first version of today's ultimate fighting. • Roman spectator sports • Roman citizens entertained with their prison captives in life-threatening gladiatorial combats and mock naval battles in the flooded Coliseum.

6. Ancient History • Periods when sports were outlawed or otherwise rejected by the masses are also a part of sports history. • During the fifth through ninth centuries sports fell into disfavor with the rise of Christianity. • Christians disfavored sports because athletes often participated in the nude and glorified the “sinful” body.

7. Later Middle Ages and the Renaissance • After sports near demise during the middle ages, military brought it back into societies good graces. • The Knights in the chivalric period used sports to prepare for war. • They learned fencing, boxing, archery, swimming, horsemanship, gymnastics, and other sports in their quest to become good soldiers.

8. Colonial America: 1607-1776 • Animal sports of cockfighting, bear baiting, gander pulling, and rat killing became common activities of colonial America. • In the south horseracing, hunting, fishing, and boxing became popular. • Boxing was practiced on southern plantations where landowners pitted slaves against each other in the ring. • In 1875 14 of 15 jockeys in the Kentucky Derby were black. • Once money, recognition, and status became associated with winning black boxers and jockeys were replaced with white fighters and riders.

9. Beginning of Organized Sports in America. • The history of organized sport in the U.S. begins with the New York Knickerbockers in the 1840s. • Knickerbockers were a social club composed of professional men that had to be voted in by members. • This club formed the fist known baseball club. • When competition and winning became more important to the Knickerbockers than social status, membership rules changed to allow low working class ballplayers free membership. • The importance of producing winners is obvious from the earliest accounts of sporting practices.

10. Collegiate Sports • History of collegiate sports in America can be traced from Native Americans, who engaged in perhaps the first team sport on the continent, lacrosse. • The earliest sporting practices in Colleges in the U.S. were most influenced by British sporting practices. • Sports were first played as class competitions and were much like today's intramural sports programs in Colleges.

11. Collegiate Sports • In 1852 intercollegiate sports began with a rowing contest between Harvard and Yale. • From the 1870s through the end of the century, men’s collegiate sports continued to expand on college campuses but their was no administrative control. • As a result, in 1906 the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) was founded.

12. The NCAA played a role in bringing fledgling athletics into the physical education fold through its recommendation for coaches to be regular educators in the institution. • This had an important effect on the field of physical education. • Amos Alonzo Stagg became the first coach-physical educator when he was hired for both positions in 1892 by the University of Chicago.

13. The Rise of Women and SPort • The emergence and growth of women's sports was quite different from that of males due to society being less accepting of women athletes. • In the mid-nineteenth century, sports outside the collegiate world for upper-class women consisted of proper activities, such as croquet, archery, and tennis. • Women’s sports were acceptable to society only if they were considered social affairs, promoted health, were noncompetitive, and were not strenuous to require a uniform.

14. From the mid- 1860s, college women were instructed by physical educators in such sports as bowling, boating, ice skating, archery, swimming, and horseback riding. • By the 1890s college women were playing class competitions in tennis, baseball, golf, track and field, field hockey, volleyball, and basketball • Basketball became the first intense game that women played, and it quickly became popular and controversial.

15. The two women most prominent in the growth and development of women’s basketball were Senda Bernson of Smith college and Clara G. Baer of Sophie Newcomb College. • These women were generally responsible for the rules of the game and did much to promote acceptance of the game. • The beginning of intercollegiate sports for women began in 1896 when University of California played Stanford and University of Washington played Ellensburg Normal School. • Educators were the leading opponents of intercollegiate sports and fought the notion of women copying the highly competitive programs.

16. Women’s sports were born and raised through the matriarchal hands of women physical educators whose objective was to promote recreational sports for all girls while prohibiting highly competitive sport for any. • Women formed their first intercollegiate association in 1971, the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) • However 10 years later it was dismantled due to Women’s membership in the NCAA.

17. Professional Sports • The earliest signs of professional sports in the U.S. was the baseball players of the mid-nineteenth century who charged gate receipts to spectators and then dividing the money among themselves. • Baseball and boxing were the front runners in organized professional sports in the U.S.

18. Boxing matches between slaves became popular in the colonial period as entertainment for white landowners. • White fighters soon took over when money was to be made. • African Americans were denied access to the heavyweight division until Jack Johnson got a match with Champ Tommy Burns and won easily to become the first Black Champion in 1908.

19. Baseball became the first professional team sport. • The first recognized baseball team was the Cincinnati Red Stockings of 1869. • Because of the Jim Crow laws, black and white players were not able to play on the same team. • As a result, African American formed their own league in the 1880s. • Negro leagues were very popular by the 1920s. • By the 1930s baseball had the National and American Leagues.

20. Since baseball was racist like most of society, the National and American Leagues were made up of only white players from 1897 until 1947. • In 1947 Jackie Robinson was brought into the Dodgers’ organization. • This brought on a major change of integration throughout both leagues. • Once pro baseball was integrated, the only major changes in the sport was the creation of its divisions and the playoff wildcard.

21. Football was the next sport to move into the professional arena. • The first all-professional teams were Canton and Massillion of Ohio in 1902. • These early pro teams were backed by independently wealthy men but had no organization and corruption was commonplace. • In 1920 the American Professional Football Association (APFA) was formed by “Papa Bear” George Halas.

22. The APFA adopted two principles in an effort to appease college dissatisfaction with football going pro. • The first was they agreed to keep their hands off players until their colleges eligibility expired. • The second was and agreement that teams would not steal other team’s players so fans could recognize the players each week. • The first principle was upheld until 1983 when the USFL broke the unwritten rule by drafting Hershel Walker from the University of Georgia. • The second principle was violated with great frequency, as a result in 1922 the APFA changed its title to the NFL and the league rules were enforced more strictly.

23. Pro basketball for white males began in the 1890s, the same decade in which the sport was invented by James Naismith at Springfield College. • There was little organization until the National Basketball League was formed in 1898. • After 5 years this league folded and another was not organized until 1925. This league was also short-lived. • In 1949 stability was finally achieved with the merging of the NBL, which was formed again in 1937, with the Basketball Association of America to become the NBA.

24. As America grew to be a nation of different cultures prejudice and discrimination was inanimate. • African Americans have been discriminated against in sporting arenas since the colonial period. - First recognized as outstanding boxers and horse racers - Due to Jim Crow laws their success was kept from the dominant society • Women too, were discriminated against in the sport world - Before the twentieth century a women’s place was thought to be in the home. - Even after women were allowed to play in sporting events strict rules were set out to so call “keep our femininity”. Prejudice and Discrimination

25. Prejudice and Discrimination Cont. • Lower-class white Americans also felt the hurt from prejudice - They could not partake in many sporting events because of their 12 hr a day, six days a week work schedule • Some religious groups were unable to make time for sports having rules against sports on Sundays

26. Breaking the color Barrier • In 1947 Jackie Robinson was brought into the National League playing for the Dodgers. • Baseball was no longer seen as having only white teams or only black teams - Robinson had opened the doors to other African Americans, Cubans, Hispanics, Chicanos, and other non-white groups • There is evidence that sporting opportunities are greater for all groups today than any other time in United States history.

27. Focus on Science • Researching Quantitatively and qualitatively - Quantitative Research: Refers to counts and measures of things; a collection of data that can be tested through statistical means in order to draw conclusions. a.) Study never designed to prove something b.) Objectivity must be used in formulating hypotheses and designing research techniques

28. Focus on Science Cont. - Qualitative Research: Examines meanings, concepts, characteristics, definitions, symbols, and descriptions of things; conclusions from this research are most often drawn from analysis of descriptive data rather than from mathematical treatment of data. a.) Requires clear goals before study begins b.) Takes longer to complete c.) Forces researchers to draw conclusions that cannot be supported with statistical data d.) Offers better interpretations of the results

29. Focus on Science Cont. • Historians have used qualitative studies more frequently that quantitative. • Most often sport historians start their study with an opinion or bias that has to do with their research. • Knowledge and research on your topic before even beginning the study is key for having success.

30. A walk through how research is conducted in Sports History….

31. George Windship Barker • Small boy who was bullied around • Always knew he wanted to fight back • At age 16 he began an exercise program by lifting weights • He became one of the strongest men in the United States before graduation • Lifted 3,000lbs. by using a yoke on his shoulders • He never weighed more than 143lbs. And was under 5 ft, 8in tall

32. The Strength Seeker • Windship’s life was so remarkable that in the 1980s a man decided to research and investigate his life story. • Problems with research: • The man was teaching in Louisiana, but Windship had spent most of his life in Boston • In order to have high-quality research one must completely dedicate most of their time to the study • If your sources are not available you may have no other choice than to travel

33. Steps in Historical Research • Each of the steps are: • In Chronologic priority • Very important • Time-consuming

34. Selecting the Research topic • How to begin a study in sports history? - Define a problem that you find interesting - Outline the purpose of the study - Make a list of questions you want to answer • Topic selected must be important enough to support the “So What?” Question - Ask yourself if your subject and findings will really matter to you or to anyone

35. Framing the Study • This step helps to verify if your study is reasonable • It includes: - Locating sources - limited time and space of study - Forming an outline for the way the research should be approached

36. Locating Historical Source • Before starting research ask yourself if your topic is manageable • If so there should be libraries and online databases where primary sources are available - Primary Sources: Works written at or near the time something occurred and usually by a party who was present to observe the occurrence. • If not available you must have the time and money to travel

37. Delimitations of the Study • Limitations of a study: Factors that may affect a study over which the researcher has no control. - Example: If your study involves interviewing retired athletes they may not remember all of their experiences when asking questions about their prime years. • Delimitation: Boundaries of time, place, or social structure that a researcher sets to keep a study within manageable parameters. - Usually imitated in the title of the paper - Most likely distinguished in the stated purpose • Set parameters for time and location - Decide which time period to examine - Choose a geographic area to focus on

38. Formulation of a Theoretical Framework • Come up with a set of research questions to focus the study toward - The original set of questions from the beginning of the study may change or be expanded • Historians begin with the five Ws and an H - What, when, where, who, why, and how • Analysis of the data: Drawing theoretical conclusions from a collection of findings to answer questions of meaning associated with past events.

39. Getting Started • Investigate what has already been written on the topic selected • Read about the specific topic and the selected time period of your study • Should have identified: - Archival depositories - Special collections - Special museums - Location of court house records - Historic sites or organizations to contact - All other sources for collecting data - Found and read the secondary sources Secondary Sources: Works based on primary sources; books, journal articles, newspaper articles, and other material written about a subject years after the event and by a person who was not an eyewitness to the occurrence.

40. Main sources used by historians • Written materials • Artifacts • Oral Testimony

41. Use of Secondary Sources • A broad assessment of secondary sources is necessary for gaining a full understanding of your topic - It helps in finding primary works and gives you a sense of direction - Provides context for your work - Presents notes and bibliographies of other books and journals • Risks to secondary sources: - Many myths associated with sports history - Example: the myth that Abner Doubleday was the originator of baseball

42. The Facts Behind the Origin of Baseball • Baseball was the first organized sport in America • Henry Chadwick, a sports writer, credited baseball to British rather than to its American origin. • After 3 years of research, Abraham Mills concluded that the story about Abner Doubleday placing 9 bases in a diamond shape and having nine players at Cooperstown, NY, in 1839 was the true origin of baseball. - Problem was that Doubleday was stationed at West Point in 1839 training to be an officer

43. Check the Story… • Doubleday was a journalist who never mentioned the word baseball • In fact, baseball was being played before Doubleday was even born • Credit for the Americanization of baseball goes to… - Alexander Cartwright and his New York Knickerbockers of the 1840s • Therefore, make sure to verify statements and research - Must go to the extreme when checking information

44. Use of Primary Sources • Important primary sources: - Diaries - Scrapbooks - Census reports - Voter registration records - birth, death, and marriage certifications - church, court, and education records - correspondence - personal memorabilia • Primary sources are the most important sources for historical work - Researchers can better understand time period - Myths can be corrected - Gain greater insight to the whys and hows

45. The Importance of Primary Sources • A women doing research on Clara Gregory Baer was asked to give a speech on Baer’s development of the 3-division court for women’s basketball. • She found amazing information that was once misinterpreted - Baer had started first 4-year physical education degree program in the South in 1907 ( 20 yrs earlier than Peabody College in Tennessee) - Baer published the first set of women’s rules for basketball in 1895 ( History credited Senda Berenson) - Baer invented the game of Newcomb Ball ( Which was basically volleyball that was credited to William Morgan) • What was actually false about Baer was that she did not create the 3-division court • “ Accepting any statements without checking for accuracy is a practice that leads to myths and the perpetuation of fallacy in historical works” (Brown 379).

46. Interpretation of Data • Write down your data accurately if you are copying straight from a source • Be aware of plagiarism! • Presentism: Applying present-day standards, values, or beliefs to events or happenings of former periods. - Causes significant errors • As a historian you need to write like an artist - Grab the attention of your reader - Work does not have to be presented purely in a scientific arrangement

47. Interpretation of Data Cont. • Sports are shaped by: • Participants • Coaches • Fans • Managers • Trainers • Entrepreneurs • Sport Historians job is to relate events with utmost honesty

48. Advances in Sports History • Sports History as a subdiscipline in the field of exercise science is fairly new. • The establishment of a sports history organization and the academic specialization of the field represents advances in the sports history field.

49. Organizational Recognition • Through the North American Society of Sport History in 1973, the subdiscipline of sports history gained more awareness and the research and writing became more scholarly. • One a year the association meets to: • Critique the most valuable books in the field • Focus on research techniques • Discuss the latest teaching ideas • The NASSH publishesthe Journal of Sport History - Promotes the study of all aspects of the history of sports

50. Changes in Scholarship • Sports research is quickly gaining respect and importance. • Since the founding of the NASSH there has been more interest in the subdiscipline as a worthy area for scholarly research and writing. • There are many universities in the United States and Canada that offer masters and doctoral degrees with a sports history major. • Students with this major pursue such jobs: - Teaching sports history - library, museum, archival, or sports writing careers