Communications Chapter 12

1. Communications Chapter 12

2. Introduction This lecture will: Introduce the topic of organizational communication Explore the significance of communication in the workplace Examine major theoretical positions on communication Look at issues such as diversity, leadership, culture and gender in relation to communication Explore the role of paradox and communication

3. What is Organizational Communication? Communication can be defined in behavioural terms (Byers, 1997) as a symbolic process: Individuals act to exchange perceptions and store knowledge which forms the basis of future actions Identity is created by interaction Language is the most vital aspect of signification and helps achieve governance and goals in the workplace Language has a social function: It promotes professional and sociological knowledge It creates commitment to organizational goals/managerial control by elites

4. Perspectives on Communication The three major perspectives are: The functionalist approach The interpretivist approach The critical approach Each will be discussed in turn in this lecture

5. Functionalist approach The functionalist approach is the dominant perspective from within sociology It views organizations as entities or things and communications as variables relative to the formation of a firm This means of communication emphasises the achievement of objectives Information is objectively conceived as possessing a definite or unitary meaning – this can aid the efficient communication of messages in tasks The metaphor of the machine (a pipeline or a lens) is used to represent the functionalist ideal of communication (Putnam et Al) The transmission of information emphasises the passive nature of the receiver

6. Figure 12.1 Organizational Communication as Action The functionalist approach sees communication as a set of discrete messages or bits sent from sender to receiver

7. Interpretivist Approach (1) A reaction against the functionalist perspective, interpretivism emphasises: Understanding of communication rather than the promotion of managerial goals Shared constructed meanings in organization, with an emphasis on the multiple interpretation of meanings in communication It argues that functionalist approaches are inadequate to represent the richness and complexity of life in organizations Hence the governing metaphor is the organism

8. Interpretivist Approach (2) Interpretivism sees the cultural/social aspects of work as important in creating shared meaning and interpretation of Narratives Rites Rituals Metaphors are also used by interpretivists to understand OB Metaphors work by combining images from distinct fields and creating a new way of seeing or gestalt Various metaphors have been used in relation to the workplace, eg: Game/military (Riley, 1983) Friends/family/home (Filipczack, 1996)

9. Critical Approach (1) The critical approach to communication derives from the critical theory school. It seeks to: Expose hidden and pervasive power held by post-industrial organizations over individuals Challenge the assumed superiority of organized capitalism Understand why organizational practices that maintain strong controls over workers are considered legitimate Critical theorists see the stories of excellence or myths and metaphors of organization as sources of power

10. Critical Approach (2) The roots of the critical approach include Marx, Gramsci, Foucault and the Frankfurt School These diverse thinkers are used within alternative organizational theory to give a different view of management They seek to give expression to those marginalized by Capitalism This is at odds with the functionalist perspective which has a utilitarian and commercial emphasis

11. Critical Approach (3) A further feature of the critical approach is its view of culture as a societal constraint (Alvesson and De Billing) Another aspect is its view of organization as a language game (related to Wittgenstein), and its rule-governed nature as a feature of managerial rationalities The critical view sees communication as regulating organizational reality which has been ‘created’ rather than being an inevitable or a natural feature

12. Communication and Management (1) Three kinds of communication media exist: Written Verbal Non-verbal (eg body language) These can occur through formal or informal channels: Formal channels refer to job related activities – email, meetings, voicemail, etc Informal channels refer to culture in the workplace and include personal and social messages. The informal communication network is termed the grapevine Genre is the term used to refer to the different kinds of action needed to complete communications in the workplace

13. Communication and Management (2) Texts embody tacit meaning; they are said to relate to ‘the lore of the tribe’ in organizations Face-to-face interaction is considered the richest medium on the communication channel continuum Communication often involves a mix of types Marshall McLuhan noted that ‘the medium is the message’ – this refers to the richness of communication conveyed by the manner of the message Particular choices of media can be useful for different purposes in different management contexts Communication can flow in different directions (see next slide)

14. Figure 12.2 - Downward, Upward and Horizontal Communications in a Retail Store

15. Communication and Persuasion Persuasive communications are used by leadership to cause change This may involve the use of rhetoric Rhetoric is an Aristotlelian idea; the notion of ethos means the perception of a person’s expertise – how convinced we are by the speaker Negotiation skills are also important Leaders also need empathy and emotional intelligence to be persuasive (Goleman)

16. Figures 12.3 and 12.4 – Two models of rhetoric Aristotle’s Model of Rhetoric Four S Model of Speech Making (Alvesson) – Asymmetric Power relations in Speech Making

17. Communication and Culture (1) Workplaces contain diverse races and cultures. Cross-cultural communication is therefore needed. Individuals’ identities are based on social and demographic groups, not just different races and cultures Individuals often identify more with sub-groups than the larger organizational group Linear models of communication may not allow for the impact of diversity

18. Communication and Culture (2) In the 60s and 70s, minority groups and women faced difficulties in terms of assimilation into organizations Dominant power structures are reflected in hierarchies within organizations These are rarely questioned In the same way, language is so structured to mirror power relations (Parker) and can cause exclusion Successful assimilation therefore involves acquiescence relative to the assertion of identity - it requires diverse cultures to adapt to some extent

19. Communication and Culture (3) Cultures differ in their verbal and non-verbal languages It is possible to identify two main types of culture (Hall, 1976) Low context cultures egUSA, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Germany Rely on written/verbal messages, linear clock time and are individualist in nature High context cultures egKorea, Japan, Arab countries Rely on informal/unwritten contracts, have a polychronic view of time and are more collectivist than individualist in nature The difference in cultural norms must be accepted in global business relations

20. Communication and Gender Gender influences communications: Men tend to see conversation as a tool; women see it as a basis of rapport, seeking empathy (Tannen) When dealing with a personnel problem, male managers may use command structures whereas female managers tend to use a more open communication style (Ross, Todd-Mancillus) Culture ought to be addressed by managers in terms of the influence of gender

21. Communication and Paradox Four main types of paradox are inherent in management practices to improve organizational performance: Performance Agency Identity Power (Stohl and Cheney, 2001) These paradoxes can take the form of cultural and communication tensions Despite team working, management still makes key decisions in most firms Tensions can occur when creative individuals have to conform A tension exists between encouraging individual creativity and placing a greater reliance on groups