Biology I

1. Carbon Compounds Intro to Macromolecules Biology I

2. Organic Compounds Compounds that contain CARBON are called organic compounds.  Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules

3. Giant Molecules = Polymers Large molecules are called polymers Polymers are built from smaller molecules (building blocks) called monomers Biologists call them macromolecules

4. Macromolecules  Large organic molecules.  Also called POLYMERS.  Made up of smaller “building blocks” called MONOMERS. Examples: 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

5. Most Macromolecules are Polymers Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers Nucleic Acid Monomer

6. Macromolecules in Organisms • There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

7. Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates are compounds composed of C,H,& O atoms in the ratio of 1:2:1  The monomers are sugar molecules They include: Small sugar molecules in soft drinks Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes Consist of 3 major types of sugars: Monosaccharides  Disaccharides  Polysaccharides

8. Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas C6H12O6

9. Monosaccharides Glucose is found in sports drinks Fructose is found in fruits Honey contains both glucose & fructose Galactose is called “milk sugar”

10. Isomers • Glucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same

11. Cellular Fuel Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work ATP

12. Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Common disaccharides include: ►Sucrose (table sugar) ►Lactose (Milk Sugar) ►Maltose (Grain sugar)

13. Disaccharides Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules Lactose is made of galactose + glucose GLUCOSE

14. Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates Composed of many sugar monomers linked together Polymers of monosaccharide chains

15. Examples of Polysaccharides Glucose Monomer Starch Glycogen Cellulose

16. Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet

17. Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen Glycogen is similar in structure to starch

18. Cellulose ►Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth ►It forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plants ►It is a major component of wood ►It is also known as dietary fiber

19. Cellulose SUGARS

20. Lipids Large molecules composed of mostly carbon & hydrogen atoms Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing” They’re not soluble in water Includes fats, waxes, steroids, & oils FAT MOLECULE

21. Function of Lipids • Fats store energy, help to insulate the body, cushion and protect organs.

22. Types of Fatty Acids Unsaturated fatty acids~have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons). Usually liquids at room temp. Saturated fatty acids~ have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons). Usually solids at room temp.

23. Fats in Organisms • Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening)

24. Fats in Organisms • Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils)

25. Types of Fatty Acids Single Bonds in Carbon chain Double bond in carbon chain

26. Triglyceride Monomer of lipids Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat

27. Triglyceride Fatty Acid Chains Glycerol

28. Steroids The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings Cholesterol Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids Estrogen Testosterone Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids

29. Synthetic Anabolic Steroids They are variants of testosterone Some athletes use them to build up their muscles quickly They can pose serious health risks

30. Proteins Are macromolecules that contain the element N as well as C, H, & O. Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders Proteins are used to build cells, act as hormones & enzymes, and do much of the work in a cell

31. Four Types of Proteins Storage Structural Contractile Transport

32. 20 Amino Acid Monomers

33. Structure of Amino Acids Carboxyl group Amino group Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things bonded to it: R group Amino group -NH3 Carboxyl group -COOH Side groups Hydrogen -H Side group -R

34. Linking Amino Acids Carboxyl Cells link amino acids together to make proteins Amino Side Group Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together Peptide Bond

35. Proteins as Enzymes Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes & end in ase Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction

36. Enzymes Enzymes are globular proteins. Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site. The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate.

37. Enzyme + Substrate = Product

38. How the Enzyme Works Enzymes are reusable!!!

39. Primary Protein Structure The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Amino Acid

40. Protein Structures Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or fold When protein chains called polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms In the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure

41. Protein Structures Amino acid (a) Primary structure Alpha helix (c) Tertiary structure (b) Secondary structure (d) Quaternary structure

42. Changing Amino Acid Sequence Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 7 2 3 6 1 4 5 (a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin 7 2 3 1 6 4 5 (b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin

43. Nucleic Acids Macromolecules that contain H, O, N, C,& P. Store hereditary information Contain information for making all the body’s proteins Two types exist - DNA & RNA

45. Nucleic Acids Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Base Sugar Nucleotide

46. Bases • Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases: Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) • Adenine (A) • Guanine (G) • Thymine (T) • Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

47. Nucleotide Monomers Backbone Nucleotide Form long chains called DNA Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side Bases DNA strand

48. DNA Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Has the sugar deoxyribose Bases are: A, T, C, & G Base pair Double helix

49. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Has the sugar ribose Single stranded It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) A,U,C & G Uracil Phosphate group Sugar (ribose)

50. Nucleic Acids