Applicability of The Synergistic Leadership Theory to Leaders in East Asian Cultures

1. Applicability of The Synergistic Leadership Theory to Leaders in East Asian Cultures LingLing Yang, ABD Beverly J. Irby, Ed.D. Genevieve Brown, Ed.D. Sam Houston State University Texas U.S.A

2. Overview Introduction Purpose of the Study Gender Bias in Leadership Theories Challenges of Gender Bias in Current Leadership Theories The Synergistic Leadership Theory East Asian Cultural Values and Traditions Related to Leadership Linkages of the SLT to Confucian-Based Values and Traditions Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations References

3. Introduction Problems with leadership theories and research: A male bias A Western bias Over the past three decades, these biases have been criticized and challenged. A need for leadership theories that transcend gender and cultures because �the goal of science is to develop universally valid theories, laws, and principles� (House et al., 2004, p. 6). In today�s world of globalization with increased international communication and multinational cooperation, the need has never been greater.

4. Purpose of the Study The purpose of our study was to examine the possibility of the transcendence of the synergistic leadership theory (SLT) to the leaders in East Asian cultures. Additionally, we discussed the implications of the SLT for developing effective leadership in cross-cultural contexts.

5. Gender Bias in Leadership Theories Current leadership theories: based upon the experiences of White males (Blackmore, 1989; Capper, 1993; Glazer, 1991) and developed from the male perspective; conducted in corporate and military settings using male participants (Gossetti & Rusch, 1995); included gender-biased language and written using the masculine voice (Shakeshaft, 1989); projected a male or androcentric bias (Irby, Brown, & Trautman, 1999); and excluded the female perspective and experience (Irby & Brown, 1995).

6. Challenges of Gender Bias in Current Leadership Theories  Shakeshaft and Nowell (1984) and Shakeshaft (1989) prevalence of gender-biased language and the lack of females Biklen & Shakeshaft, 1985 Scholarship that focuses on and includes female perspectives is imperative Shakeshaft (1989) paradigm shift that theory and practice in educational administration are expanded to reflect the female reality Irby, Brown, and Trautman (1999) An analysis on 13 leadership theories confirmed the exclusion of the female perspectives

7. Challenges of Gender Bias in Current Leadership Theories McCarthy (1999) Educational administrative programs focused the study of leadership on traditional theories and the ways that women might lead are generally not included Young and McLeod (2001) �exposing our students solely to traditional leadership literature [including leadership theories] essentially legitimizes traditionally male behavior and perspectives and delegitimizes the behavior and perspectives of women� (p. 491). Grogan (1999) New conceptions of leadership theories are needed. �It is reasonable to imagine that because women�s lived experiences as leaders are different from men�s, new theoretical understanding of a leadership that is premised on social justice might emerge� (p. 533).

8. The Synergistic Leadership Theory To address the male bias and include the female�s experience and perspective, Irby, Brown, Duffy (1999) developed the SLT. Developed by female researchers, utilizing a female sample, and including the female perspective (Irby, Brown, & Duffy, 1999). The SLT is based on three assumptions: Leadership is the interaction among attitudes, beliefs, and values; leadership behavior; external forces; and organizational structure. Women bring a particular set of leadership behaviors to leadership positions. No theory/model exists in current literature that is inclusive of female leadership characteristics or women�s perspectives (Irby, Brown, Duffy, & Trautman, 2002).

9. TETRAHEDRAL MODEL

10. The Synergistic Leadership Theory Four equal factors: (a) attitudes, beliefs, and values; (b) leadership behavior; (c) external forces; and (d) organizational structure. Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values Foundation for guiding principals Dichotomous Manifested in actions Leadership Behavior A range of behaviors from autocratic to nurturer Both behaviors that are commonly associated with males and those that are commonly associated with females.

11. The Synergistic Leadership Theory External Forces Influencers outside the control of the organization or the leader Community and conditions, regulations or laws, demographics, cultural and political climate, technological advances, economic situations, etc. Organizational Structure Characteristics of organizations and how they operate Ranging form open, feminist organizations to tightly bureaucratic ones The SLT creates a framework for describing interactions and dynamic tensions among the four factors (Holtkamp et al., 2007; Irby et al., 2002). Tension between even two of the factors can negatively impact the perceived effectiveness of the leader or the organization.

12. The Synergistic Leadership Theory Three aspects that distinguished the SLT from other current leadership theories: Postmodern Position challenges the hegemony of modernist centralization and marginalization promotes the views of postmodernism �does not advocate a binary �either/or� criteria Gender Inclusivity addresses the female perspective and includes attributes, experiences, and abilities inherent in both male and female leaders includes female leaders in leadership development, reflects females� leadership experiences female leadership behaviors may interact with the factors of the theory in ways unlike the leadership behavior of males

13. The Synergistic Leadership Theory Cross-Cultural Transcendence contextual, relational, situational/contingent, and transformational (Irby et al., 2002; Schlosberg et al., 2008; Trautman, 2000) culture is an external force possesses explanatory power (Trautman) practical and useful for understanding interactive systems (Trautman) parsimonious (Holtkamp et al., 2001) advances gender equity and social justice because it promotes dialogue around a model that is cognizant of female, as well as male, realities (Trautman, 2000; Truslow, 2004)

14. East Asian Cultural Values and Traditions Related to Leadership Cultural factors should be taken into consideration when a theory is transferred to a given culture East Asia, also called Confucian Asia (House et al., 2004) Influence of Confucianism on the history, politics, economics, and culture of China and East Asian societies Confucian-based values and traditions related to leadership include: Benevolence, Moral Leadership, and Exemplary Teaching Collective Orientation and Harmonious Social Relations Paternalistic Authority and Acceptance of Hierarchy Masculinity and Male-Centeredness

15. East Asian Cultural Values and Traditions Related to Leadership  Benevolence, Moral Leadership, and Exemplary Teaching Main themes of Confusianism and r�n as the highest morel principle An individual can realize his or her potential to be fully human The best government is a humane government Politics was moral leadership and exemplary teaching (Tu, 1999). Adaptation of Misumi�s PM leadership theory in China (Xu et al., 1985) character Ling, Chia, and Fang�s (2000) study on Chinese implicit leadership personal morality or virtue as the most important feature of leadership Farh and Cheng�s (2000) cultural analysis of paternalistic leadership in Chinese business organizations benevolence, moral leadership, and authoritarianism

16. East Asian Cultural Values and Traditions Related to Leadership Collective Orientation and Harmonious Social Relations Conception of the state-family unity Harmony and mutual consensus between human and nature and between man and man (Kirkbride, Tang, & Westwood, 1991). Highest goal: Achievement of social harmony Hofstede�s (1980) survey among IBM managers/employees in over 40 countries Chinese and South Korea were high on collectivism and Japan was medium on collectivism. Dorfman and Howell�s (1997) study on generalizability of six leader behaviors derived from contingency based leadership theories among a total of 1,598 managers and professionals of large multinational or national companies located in the United States, Mexico, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan Japanese were the lowest of all samples in the level of contingent punishment behavior

17. East Asian Cultural Values and Traditions Related to Leadership Paternalistic Authority and Acceptance of Hierarchy Society as a large family Li was an all-embracing system of norms (Hershock & Ames, 2006) including the traditions, social customs, propriety, etiquette, politeness, and legal rules. Li is �the cement of the entire normative sociopolitical order� (Schwartz, 1985, p. 67) At the heart of li is the notion of hierarchy (Jiang, 2006). Xi�o and zhong played central roles in Confucian value of order and hierarchy Five cardinal relationships, or wul�n Pun, Chin, and Lau (2000) - collective orientation, social relations, paternalistic approach, and acceptance of hierarchy. Dorfman and Howell (1997) - directive leadership and participative leadership

18. East Asian Cultural Values and Traditions Related to Leadership Masculinity and Male-Centeredness Male-centered society Women�s inner function �Threefold dependence� (Rosenlee, 2006) �Normativity of gender traits� and the �complementarity and dynamic relationships� (Yee, 2003, p. 329-330) between genders Neo-Confucian writings and sayings Basic Confucian beliefs about the nature and role of women have had far-reaching effects (Women and Confucianism, 2008). Lee�s (2001) examination of leadership and organizational culture in South Korean higher education An age-ranking system and masculine dominant culture Sitting positions are arranged by status, age, and gender Female members are overlooked in administrative position

19. Linkages of the SLT to Confucian-Based Values and Traditions The SLT - gender-inclusive leadership theory female leaders and their experience and perspective a range of leadership behaviors and a range of organizational structures guided by an ethic of care (Irwin, 1995), and labeled as collective, collaborative, and interactive Confucian-Based Values and Traditions R�n is �the central concept of Confucian ethics, and the concept of care� (Li, 2008, p. 175). A person of r�n is one who �wishing to sustain himself, sustains others; wishing to develop himself, cares for the development of others� (Waley, 479 BCE/1989). For both Confucianism and female leadership, the ultimate goal of r�n and care is a strong sense of responsibility to others, community, society, and the world (Held, 1987).

20. Linkage of the SLT to Confucian-Based Values and Traditions The SLT has emerged as a transformational leadership theory sharing responsibilities, building capacity in others, leading by example, motivating followers, and restructuring social situations. Congruence of transformational leadership nature of the SLT with Confucian moral leadership and exemplary teaching Burns (1978) noted that transformational leadership, �� occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality� (p. 20). According to Confucius (as cited in Zhang, 2002), �A benevolent person while wanting to establish him- or herself also establishes others, while wanting to be outstanding him- or herself also makes others outstanding. To be able to judge others by what is near to ourselves may be called the full scope of benevolence� (p. 287).

21. Linkage of the SLT to Confucian-Based Values and Traditions The SLT positioned in postmodernism Postmodernism focuses on inclusivity, multiplicity, and plurality. The SLT is inclusive of female leaders� perspectives and experiences; it pursues co-existence or continuity of old theories rather than replacement of them. Confucian Golden rule �Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you. � The reluctance to impose one�s own way on others is a consideration for the integrity of the other� (Tu, 1985, p. 26). Confucianism assumes that moral and spiritual self-development involves �a multiplicity of ways to be pursued� (Tu, p. 26). and thus rejects the exclusivity in ethicoreligious thought.

22. Linkage of the SLT to Confucian-Based Values and Traditions The SLT consists of four factors which relate to and interact with each other. The relationships and interactions are applicable in East Asian societies and cultures and contribute to the perceived effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of the leader or organization when all four factors are in alignment (or in misalignment). East Asian values and beliefs requires leadership behaviors reflect moral principles Respect for authority and acceptance of hierarchy may result in more hierarchical organizational structures and more directive leadership behaviors External forces may be more powerful and intertwined No matter what values, beliefs, attitudes, leadership behaviors, organizational structures, and external forces, the leader and organization can be perceived as effective if there is an alignment among the four factors.

23. Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations Conclusions Examined the SLT, East Asian cultural values and traditions related to leadership Discovered a congruence existing between the SLT and Confucian-based values and traditions Confirmed the possibility of the transcendence of the SLT to the leaders in East Asian cultures Significant implications for development of effective leadership in the cross-cultural context Recommendations Adopt postmodernist views of accepting multiple truths and to promote diversity by identifying the silences and including the differences

24. Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations Promote gender equity and social justice by including the female leaders� views and voices Female leadership emphasizes care, empowerment, and relationship (Irwin, 1995). Female leaders prioritize relationships over authority and lead through collaboration rather than competition (Shakeshaft, 1989) Be aware of that leadership is a moral endeavor The ultimate goal of leadership is to elevate the follower from a lower level to a higher level of morality and to help the followers to �become moral leaders in the cause of achieving a collective purpose� (Fairholm, 2001, p. 2). Take cultural factors into consideration Enhance their cultural competence by increasing their awareness of and sensitivity to cultural differences and acceptance of cultural values and behavioral patterns specific to certain cultures

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